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Методом ИК Фурье спектроскопии в пределах одного ствола были изучены изменения древесины cосны обыкновенной (Pínus sylvéstris) в результате ее биологического поражения и деструкции окаймленным трутовиком – грибом Fomitopsis pinicola (Schw. ex Fr.) Karst. Исследование проводили на спектрометре Prestige-21 фирмы Shimadzu в области волновых чисел 4000– 400 см–1 с разрешением 4 см–1 (20 сканов). Спектры поглощения снимали с использованием приставки диффузионного отражения (ДО). Показано, что биодеструкция древесной ткани сосны отражается на ИК Фурье спектрах. Изменения наблюдаются в областях спектра поглощения, характеризующих валентные колебания гидроксильных, метиленовых, карбонильных групп, скелетные колебания ароматического кольца. Глубокая деструкция древесины в центре ствола сопровождается батохромным сдвигом (1734 см–1 до 1719 см–1) и значительным увеличением интенсивности полосы поглощения валентных колебаний карбонильных групп (1719 см–1), а также изменением контура спектра поглощения в области от ~1719 до ~1100 см–1. В спектре деструктированной древесины интенсивности полос поглощения в этой области уменьшаются, в спектрах образцов с периферии и центра ствола, сохранивших морфологическую структуру древесины – увеличиваются. В деструктированной древесине отмечено существенное увеличение интенсивности полосы поглощения при 1601 см–1, которая становится несколько большей, чем интенсивность полосы с максимумом 1508 см–1, что не характерно для ИК спектра здоровой хвойной древесины, в которой отношение интенсивностей этих полос поглощения противоположное. Сhanges of the Scots pine wood (Pínus sylvéstris) within a single tree trunk caused by its biological destruction made by red belt fungus Fomitopsis pinicola (Schw. ex Fr.) Karst were studied by use of the IR Fourier spectroscopy method. The wood was cut in Syktyvdin region of the Komi Republic. From the trunk about 36 сm in diameter a sample was sawed about 15 cm thick. Three samples were selected for spectra: 1 – light brown non-destructed wood from the centre of the trunk, 2 – dark brown, adjacent to the completely destroyed wood; 3 – from the periphery of the trunk not clearly affected by rot. The research was made by use of spectrometer Prestige-21 produced by Shimadzu company in the field of the wave numbers 4000–400 сm–1 with a resolution of 4 cm–1 (20 scans). Absorption spectra were examined by using a diffusion reflector (DR). It is shown that bio destruction of the wood fiber of pine is reflected on the IR Fourier spectra. Changes are observed in the absorption spectrum that characterize the valence oscillations of hydroxyl, methylene, carbonyl groups, and skeletal oscillations of the aromatic ring. A deep destruction of wood in the centre of the trunk is accompanied by a bathwater drift (1734 сm–1 to 1719 сm–1) and a significant increase in the absorption band of the valence oscillations of carbonyl groups (1719 сm–1), as well as change of the spectra contour of the absorption from ~1719 to ~1100 cm–1. In the spectrum of the disrupted wood, the intensity of the absorption bands in this area decreases, and in the spectra of the samples from the periphery and the center of the trunk that have preserved the morphological structure of the wood increases. There is a significant increase in the absorption band in the disrupted wood 1601 сm–1, that becomes bigger than, band intensity maximum 1508 сm–1, that is not typical for the IR spectrum of healthy coniferous wood, in which the ratio of the intensity of these absorption bands is the opposite.

Species richness and composition of macrofungi on huge fallen trunks of spruce (Picea abies) were monitored at a model old-growth forest locality, Boubinský prales virgin forest (Czech Republic). Using detailed survey of all macrofungal groups based on fruit bodies, 168 species were recorded on 33 trunks with a diameter of 100–150 cm, which is a very high species richness. Individual trunks were inhabited by 6–32 species. The number of species per trunk was positively correlated with increasing tree cover, medium decay stages, and decreasing altitude. The species-richest groups were resupinate fungi with annual basidiomata and fleshy saprotrophic fungi. Species composition on particular trunks was significantly influenced by percentage of bark cover, altitude, and decay stage and to a lesser degree also by percentage of trunk contact with the soil and cover of mosses, trees, and shrubs. Resupinate fungi and fleshy saprotrophs were distributed along the entire decay gradient. Most polypores prevailed in early decay stages. Mycorrhizal agarics were associated with the latest stages. The presence of dominant species Fomitopsis pinicola had a low effect on the composition of other fungal species on the same trunk, whereas Phellinus nigrolimitatus had a significant effect. The monitoring revealed 71% of species known at the locality from spruce, and 45 species new to the locality, especially those with inconspicuous fruit bodies. The previously published field survey was more efficient for capturing rare species with larger fruit bodies. Both methods should be combined during mycobiota inventories.

Wood-decaying fungi tend to have characteristic substrate ranges that partly define their ecological niche. Fomitopsis pinicola is a brown rot species of Polyporales that is reported on 82 species of softwoods and 42 species of hardwoods. We analyzed gene expression levels of F. pinicola from submerged cultures with ground wood powder (sampled at 5 days) or solid wood wafers (sampled at 10 and 30 days), using aspen, pine, and spruce substrates (aspen was used only in submerged cultures). Fomitopsis pinicola expressed similar sets of wood-degrading enzymes typical of brown rot fungi across all culture conditions and time points. Nevertheless, differential gene expression was observed across all pairwise comparisons of substrates and time points. Genes exhibiting differential expression encode diverse enzymes with known or potential function in brown rot decay, including laccase, benzoquinone reductase, aryl alcohol oxidase, cytochrome P450s, and various glycoside hydrolases. Comparing transcriptomes from submerged cultures and wood wafers, we found that culture conditions had a greater impact on global expression profiles than substrate wood species. These findings highlight the need for standardization of culture conditions in studies of gene expression in wood-decaying fungi. IMPORTANCE All species of wood-decaying fungi occur on a characteristic range of substrates (host plants), which may be broad or narrow. Understanding the mechanisms that allow fungi to grow on particular substrates is important for both fungal ecology and applied uses of different feedstocks in industrial processes. We grew the wood-decaying polypore Fomitopsis pinicola on three different wood species—aspen, pine, and spruce—under various culture conditions. We found that F. pinicola is able to modify gene expression (transcription levels) across different substrate species and culture conditions. Many of the genes involved encode enzymes with known or predicted functions in wood decay. This study provides clues to how wood-decaying fungi may adjust their arsenal of decay enzymes to accommodate different host substrates.

The results of studies of the species composition of wood-destroying fungus in the Park of Recreation and Leisure named after Mykhailo Chekman in the city of Khmelnytskyi are presented here. In the Park, 29 species of wood-destroying fungus were found, which are widespread on 14 tree species. The most common types of destroying fungus were: Fomitopsis pinicola, Bjercandera adusta, Bjercandera fumosa, Phellinus igniarius, and Stereum hirsutum. These types of wood-destroying fungus are found on almost all tree species of the park which have been damaged by the fungi. The tree species, which are most susceptible to wood-destroying fungus, are: Betula pendula Roth., Fraxinus excelsior L., Salix alba L., Populus nigra and Quercus robur L. The lowest occurance of wood-destroying fungi was found on вільсі чорній and грабові звичайному. It has been proved that the role of wood-destroying fungus in urban plantations is negative. Most species of wood-destroying fungus cause a variety of rot. Such trees have no external signs of weakening for a long time. It is possible to find affected trees with wood-destroying mushrooms by the presence of fruit bodies. The methods of dealing with wood-destroying fungus are presented here. The main method is conducting periodic forest-pathological surveys to detect the species composition of wood-destroying fungus and the degree of affliction of plantations. In the park, along with the implementation of sanitary measures, the individual protection of trees is important. Methods of protection are; wound healing, wound rubbing after pruning and filling of tree hollows. Protection of trees on the basis of chemical methods should be carried out with single defeat. Measures to regulate recreational loads and prevent mechanical and other tree damage are also important in Chekman Park. The obtained research results broaden the idea of the species diversity of wood-destroying fungi in the park plantations of Khmelnytskyi and can be used in the organization and implementation of forest-pathological monitoring, as well as determining the locations of future sanitary and recreational activities.

Carbon and mineral cycling in sustainable forest systems depends on a microbiome of basidiomycetes, ascomycetes, litter-degrading saprobes, ectomycorrhizal, and mycoparasitic fungi that constitute a deadwood degrading consortium. The brown rot basidiomycete Fomitopsis pinicola (Swartz: Fr.) P. Karsten (Fp), as an oxalate-producing facultative pathogen, is an early colonizer of wounded trees and fresh deadwood. It replaces basidiomycetous white rot fungi and non-basidiomycetous fungal phyla in the presence of its volatilome, but poorly in its absence. With the goal of determining its dominance over the most competitive basidiomycetes and its role in fungal successions within the forest microbiome in general, Fp was exposed to the white rot fungus Kuehneromyces mutabilis (Schaeff.: Fr.) Singer &amp, Smith (Km) in aseptic dual culture established on fertilized 100 mm-long wood dust columns in glass tubes with the inclusion of their volatilomes. For the mycelia approaching from the opposite ends of the wood dust columns, the energy-generating systems of laccase and manganese peroxidase (MnP), the virulence factor oxalate, and the exhalation of terpenes were determined by spectrophotometry, High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Km mycelia perceived the approaching Fp over 20 mm of non-colonized wood dust, reduced the laccase activity to 25%, and raised MnP to 275%&ndash, 500% by gaining energy and presumably by controlling oxalate, H2O2, and the dropping substrate pH caused by Fp. On mycelial contact, Km stopped Fp, secured its substrate sector with 4 mm of an impermeable barrier region during an eruption of antimicrobial bisabolenes, and dropped from the invasion mode of substrate colonization into the steady state mode of low metabolic and defensive activity. The approaching Fp raised the oxalate production throughout to &gt, 20g kg&minus, 1 to inactivate laccase and caused, with pH 1.4&ndash, 1.7, lethal conditions in its substrate sector whose physiological effects on Km could be reproduced with acidity conditions incited by HCl. After a mean lag phase of 11 days, Fp persisting in a state of high metabolic activity overgrew and digested the debilitated Km thallus and terminated the production of oxalate. It is concluded that the factors contributing to the competitive advantage of F. pinicola in the colonization of wounded trees and pre-infected deadwood are the drastic long-term acidification of the timber substrate, its own insensitivity to extremely low pH conditions, its efficient control of the volatile mono- and sesquiterpenes of timber and microbial origin, and the action of a undefined blend of terpenes and allelopathic substances.

Most wood-inhabiting fungi are assumed to be dispersed primarily by wind, with the exception of a few species involved in mutualistic relationships with insects. In this study we tested whether several species of wood-inhabiting insects can function as dispersal vectors for non-mutualistic fungi, which would indicate that wood-inhabiting fungi can benefit from targeted animal-mediated dispersal. We sampled wood-inhabiting beetles (Coleoptera) from freshly felled wood experimentally added to forests and used DNA metabarcoding to investigate the fungal DNA carried by these insects. Staphylinid beetles rarely contained fungal DNA, while Endomychus coccineus, Glischrochilus hortensis and Glischrochilus quadripunctatus frequently carried fungal DNA with a composition specific to the insect taxon. A large proportion of the obtained fungal sequences (34%) represented decomposer fungi, including well-known wood-decay fungi such as Fomitopsis pinicola, Fomes fomentarius, Trichaptum abietinum and Trametes versicolor. Scanning electron microscopy further showed that some of the fungal material was carried as spores or yeast cells on the insect exoskeletons. Our results suggest that insect-vectored dispersal is of broader importance to wood-inhabiting fungi than previously assumed.

Sixty-six isolates of basidiomycete fungi were screened for the ability to synthesize cellulase. The effect of temperature on cellulase activity was studied for eight basidiomycete strains as perspective producers of ethanol. The temperature optima of enzyme activity ranged between 26 and 32°C. Direct conversion of Na-carboxymethyl cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose and rye straw were studied for seven basidiomycetes strains: Fomitopsis pinicola MT-5.09, F. pinicola MT-5.21, Piptoporus betulinus MT-30.04, Fomes fomentarius MT-4.05, F. fomentarius MT-4.23, Trametes hirsuta MT-24.24, Flammulina velutipes MT-3.03 Maximum ethanol production from Na-carboxymethyl cellulose (1.3 g/dm3) was achieved by strain F. velutipes MT-3.03. Strain F. fomentarius MT-4.05 more effectively converted rye straw to ethanol with yield of 1.1 g/dm3.

Tree stumps left after clear-cutting have replaced naturally formed logs as the most common type of coarse woody debris in managed boreal forests. It is therefore necessary to understand stump importance for the biodiversity of wood-inhabiting organisms, including fungi, and determine their role in hosting species of conservation interest. We analyzed wood from 485 Norway spruce (Picea abies) stumps from 41 clear-cuts at seven localities along a latitudinal gradient from northern to southern Sweden using 454-sequencing. We also collated data about the known ecology of the 86 identified macro-basidiomycetes. In total, 1355 fungal operational taxonomic units were detected, of which 19% were identified down to genus or species level. The most widespread fungi were generalists, such as Leptodontidium elatius, Resinicium bicolor, Fomitopsis pinicola, and Coniophora puteana. Five species of conservation interest were detected, but were not abundant (Kneiffiella curvispora, Metulodontia nivea, Perenniporia subacida, Postia placenta, and Climacocystis borealis). Fungal community composition changed with stump age and along the latitudinal gradient. These results will enable us to better incorporate important biodiversity and conservation issues when making decisions about using stumps as resources for biofuel.

The diethyl ether extract obtained from solvent–solvent extraction of Norway spruce (Picea abies) debarking water, a byproduct from debarking of logs in the pulp and paper industry, was tested for inhibition of growth on agar plates of nine species of wood-decaying fungi: Antrodia sinuosa, Antrodia xantha, Coniophora puteana, Fomitopsis pinicola, Gloeophyllum sepiarium, Heterobasidion parviporum, Phlebiopsis gigantea, Serpula himantioides, and Serpula lacrymans. One fraction of the extract showed excellent antifungal activity for a majority of the species, with complete inhibition of growth for A. sinuosa, A. xantha, and G. sepiarium. The major constituents of the most active fraction were identified as the hydroxystilbenes resveratrol, isorhapontigenin (synonymous with methyl piceatannol), and piceatannol (synonymous with astringenin). The active compounds were isolated or synthesized and used individually for dose–response studies. It was found that isorhapontigenin and piceatannol inhibited all growth of A. sinuosa, A. xantha, and G. sepiarium in 0.35 % weight concentration. The hydroxystilbenes were the three most abundant substances in the debarking water and can be obtained as a mixture or in enriched forms. From some extraction steps of the raw debarking water, it would be possible to obtain the hydroxystilbenes in quantities that might be of commercial interest as efficient natural fungicides.

Information on the habitat requirements of wood-inhabiting fungi is needed to understand the factors that affect their diversity. We applied culture-free DNA extraction and 454-pyrosequencing to study the mycobiota of decaying Norway spruce ( Picea abies ) logs in five unmanaged boreal forests. Fungal habitat preferences in respect of wood density gradient were then estimated with generalized additive mixed models. Fungal diversity and wood density were inversely related, i.e., OTU richness generally increased as the log became increasingly decomposed. White-rot fungi (e.g., Phellinus nigrolimitatus ) and members of Hyphodontia did not show a clear response to the wood-density gradient, whereas abundance of Phellinus viticola and brown-rot fungi (e.g., Fomitopsis pinicola , Antrodia serialis , Coniophora olivaceae ) peaked during intermediate decay and mycorrhizal fungi (e.g., Piloderma , Tylospora , Russula ) increased in the later stages. This information on fungal habitat requirements facilitates the development of management practices that preserve fungal diversity in managed forests.

We report the adsorption of Cr (VI) ions from aqueous solution by forest waste. Two adsorbents were prepared from cone biomass and Fomitopsis pinicola. To study the kinetics of both were used three particular size (Fomitopsis pinicola, respectively. To study the effect of other ions on the Cr (VI) removal by both biosorbents, electroplating industry wastewater was collected from an industry. Overall, the experimental results suggest that cone biomass and Fomitopsis pinicola could be used as low cost alternative adsorbents for the treatment of low concentration Cr (VI) containing wastewater.

Wood-decaying fungi tend to have characteristic substrate ranges that partly define their ecological niche. Fomitopsis pinicola is a brown rot species of Polyporales that is reported on 82 species of softwoods and 42 species of hardwoods. We analyzed the gene expression levels and RNA editing profiles of F. pinicola from submerged cultures with ground wood powder (sampled at 5 days) or solid wood wafers (sampled at 10 and 30 days), using aspen, pine, and spruce substrates (aspen was used only in submerged cultures). Fomitopsis pinicola expressed similar sets of wood-degrading enzymes typical of brown rot fungi across all culture conditions and time points. Nevertheless, differential gene expression and RNA editing were observed across all pairwise comparisons of substrates and time points. Genes exhibiting differential expression and RNA editing encode diverse enzymes with known or potential function in brown rot decay, including laccase, benzoquinone reductase, aryl alcohol oxidase, cytochrome P450s, and various glycoside hydrolases. There was no overlap between differentially expressed and differentially edited genes, suggesting that these may provide F. pinicola with independent mechanisms for responding to different conditions. Comparing transcriptomes from submerged cultures and wood wafers, we found that culture conditions had a greater impact on global expression profiles than substrate wood species. In contrast, the suites of genes subject to RNA editing were much less affected by culture conditions. These findings highlight the need for standardization of culture conditions in studies of gene expression in wood-decaying fungi.IMPORTANCE All species of wood-decaying fungi occur on a characteristic range of substrates (host plants), which may be broad or narrow. Understanding the mechanisms that enable fungi to grow on particular substrates is important for both fungal ecology and applied uses of different feedstocks in industrial processes. We grew the wood-decaying polypore Fomitopsis pinicola on three different wood species, aspen, pine, and spruce, under various culture conditions. We examined both gene expression (transcription levels) and RNA editing (posttranscriptional modification of RNA, which can potentially yield different proteins from the same gene). We found that F. pinicola is able to modify both gene expression and RNA editing profiles across different substrate species and culture conditions. Many of the genes involved encode enzymes with known or predicted functions in wood decay. This work provides clues to how wood-decaying fungi may adjust their arsenal of decay enzymes to accommodate different host substrates.

Basidiomycota fungi in the order Polyporales are specified to decomposition of dead wood and woody debris and thereby are crucial players in the degradation of organic matter and cycling of carbon in the forest ecosystems. Polyporales wood-decaying species comprise both white rot and brown rot fungi, based on their mode of wood decay. While the white rot fungi are able to attack and decompose all the lignocellulose biopolymers, the brown rot species mainly cause the destruction of wood polysaccharides, with minor modification of the lignin units. The biochemical mechanism of brown rot decay of wood is still unclear and has been proposed to include a combination of nonenzymatic oxidation reactions and carbohydrate-active enzymes. Therefore, a linking approach is needed to dissect the fungal brown rot processes. We studied the brown rot Polyporales species Fomitopsis pinicola by following mycelial growth and enzyme activity patterns and generating metabolites together with Fenton-promoting Fe 3+ -reducing activity for 3 months in submerged cultures supplemented with spruce wood. Enzyme activities to degrade hemicellulose, cellulose, proteins, and chitin were produced by three Finnish isolates of F. pinicola . Substantial secretion of oxalic acid and a decrease in pH were notable. Aromatic compounds and metabolites were observed to accumulate in the fungal cultures, with some metabolites having Fe 3+ -reducing activity. Thus, F. pinicola demonstrates a pattern of strong mycelial growth leading to the active production of carbohydrate- and protein-active enzymes, together with the promotion of Fenton biochemistry. Our findings point to fungal species-level “fine-tuning” and variations in the biochemical reactions leading to the brown rot type of wood decay. IMPORTANCE Fomitopsis pinicola is a common fungal species in boreal and temperate forests in the Northern Hemisphere encountered as a wood-colonizing saprotroph and tree pathogen, causing a severe brown rot type of wood degradation. However, its lignocellulose-decomposing mechanisms have remained undiscovered. Our approach was to explore both the enzymatic activities and nonenzymatic Fenton reaction-promoting activities (Fe 3+ reduction and metabolite production) by cultivating three isolates of F. pinicola in wood-supplemented cultures. Our findings on the simultaneous production of versatile enzyme activities, including those of endoglucanase, xylanase, β-glucosidase, chitinase, and acid peptidase, together with generation of low pH, accumulation of oxalic acid, and Fe 3+ -reducing metabolites, increase the variations of fungal brown rot decay mechanisms. Furthermore, these findings will aid us in revealing the wood decay proteomic, transcriptomic, and metabolic activities of this ecologically important forest fungal species.

Sweet sorghum is a promising crop for a warming, drying African climate, and basic information is lacking on conversion pathways for its lignocellulosic residues (bagasse). Brown rot wood-decomposer fungi use carbohydrate-selective pathways that, when assessed on sorghum, a grass substrate, can yield information relevant to both plant biomass conversion and fungal biology. In testing sorghum decomposition by brown rot fungi (Gloeophyllum trabeum,Serpula lacrymans), we found thatG. trabeumreadily degraded sorghum, removing xylan prior to removing glucan.Serpula lacrymans, conversely, caused little decomposition. Ergosterol (fungal biomarker) and protein levels were similar for both fungi, butS. lacrymansproduced nearly 4x lower polysaccharide-degrading enzyme specific activity on sorghum thanG. trabeum, perhaps a symptom of starvation. Linking this information to genome comparisons including other brown rot fungi known to have a similar issue regarding decomposing grasses(Postia placenta, Fomitopsis pinicola)suggested that a lack of CE 1 feruloyl esterases as well as low xylanase activity inS. lacrymans(3x lower than inG. trabeum) may hinderS. lacrymans,P. placenta,andF. pinicolawhen degrading grass substrates. These results indicate variability in brown rot mechanisms, which may stem from a differing ability to degrade certain lignin-carbohydrate complexes.

β-Glucosidase, which hydrolyzes cellobiose into two glucoses, plays an important role in the process of saccharification of the lignocellulosic biomass. In this study, we optimized the activity of β-glucosidase of brown-rot fungus Fomitopsis pinicola KCTC 6208 using the response surface methodology (RSM) with various concentrations of glucose, yeast extract and ascorbic acid, which are the most significant nutrients for activity of β-glucosidase. The highest activity of β-glucosidase was achieved 3.02% of glucose, 4.35% of yeast extract, and 7.41% ascorbic acid where ascorbic acid was most effective. The maximum activity of β-glucosidase predicted by the RSM was 15.34 U/mg, which was similar to the experimental value 14.90 U/mg at the 16th day of incubation. This optimized activity of β-glucosidase was 23.6 times higher than the preliminary activity value, 0.63 U/mg, and was also much higher than previous values reported in other fungi strains. Therefore, a simplified medium supplemented with a cheap vitamin source, such as ascorbic acid, could be a cost effective mean of increasing β-glucosidase activity.

WOS: 000354631900007, Fomitopsis pincola, which is used as a medicinal fungus in Asia, is widespread throughout the temperate Northern Hemisphere. The fungus's chitin structure was isolated and characterized in this study. It was found that 30.11 % of the dry weight of the fungus consisted of chitin, a very high portion. The chitosan yield from the chitin was 71.75 %. It was calculated that chitin acetylation was 72.5 % and that deacetylation of chitosan was 73.1 %. The maximum temperature of degradation (DTGmax) recorded for the chitin was 341 A degrees C and was 265 A degrees C for chitosan. The crystalline index (CrI) value of the chitin was 52 %, while it was 41 % for the chitosan. Examination by SEM revealed that the surface morphologies of the chitin and chitosan were formed of nanofibre structures. The FTIR examination identified it as the alpha form of chitin. As F. pinicola is widespread, abundant and has a high chitin and chitosan content, it may be used as an alternative chitin and chitosan source.

Fomitopsis pinicola (Sw.) P. Karst. благодаря высокой скорости роста in vitro, широкому применению в медицине и образованию ферментов, расщепляющих растительные полимеры, может считаться одним из наиболее перспективных ксилотрофных базидиомицетов для биотехнологии, включая биоконверсию растительных отходов. В работе представлены результаты исследования дереворазрушающих свойств сибирских штаммов F. pinicola, изолированных в чистую культуру из плодовых тел, произраставших на древесине Abies sibirica Ledeb, Pinus sylvestris Ledeb, Pinus sibirica Du Tour и Larix sibirica Ledeb в хвойных лесах Емельяновского района Красноярского края (56°09' – 56°22' С; 92°10' – 92°58' В).Проведен скрининг культур по ростовым параметрам и динамике ферментативной активности при культивировании на целлюлозосодержащих средах: радиальная скорость роста грибов составляет 1,1 – 3,3 мм/сут; ростовой коэффициент 10–42; активность ферментов, гидролизующих натриевую соль карбоксиметилцеллюлозы, находится в диапазоне 0,05–0,39 ед/мл с максимумом на 7–9 сутки культивирования. Максимальная дереворазрушающая активность F.pinicola при твердофазной ферментации растительных отходов отмечена на древесине сосны обыкновенной и лиственницы сибирской – убыль массы субстратов составила соответственно 16 и 20 %. На опилках Pinus sylvestris сумма полисахаридов уменьшилась в 1,2 раза в большей степени за счет ферментолиза трудногидролизуемой фракции; содержание лигниновых веществ существенно не изменилось. На опилках Larix sibirica содержание полисахаридов уменьшилась в 1,3 раза; количество лигниновых веществ – в 1,2 раза по сравнению с исходным субстратом., Presents the results of a research of wood-destroying properties of the basidiomycete Fomitopsis pinicola (Sw.) P. Karst. The strains were isolated in pure culture from fruiting bodies that grew on the Abies sibirica Ledeb, Pinus sylvestris Ledeb, Pinus sibirica Du Tour and Larix sibirica Ledeb in the forests of the Krasnoyarsk Territory (56°09'–56°22' N; 92°10'–92°58' E). The cultures screened for growth parameters and the dynamics of enzymatic activity during cultivation on cellulose-containing media. The radial growth rate of Siberian strains on the agar medium and plant substrates is 1,1–3,3 mm / day; the growth coefficient is 10–42. All studied cultures synthesize extracellular cellulolytic enzymes that hydrolyze the sodium salt of carboxymethylcellulose. The enzymatic activity is in the range 0,05–0,39 U / ml with a maximum of 7–9 days. The most active strain of Fp5-15 F. pinicola used for bioconversion of coniferous plant substrates under solid-phase culture conditions. The maximum wood-destroying activity observed on pine and larch wood – the mass loss of substrates was 16 and 20%, respectively. On Pinus sylvestris sawdust, the total content of polysaccharides decreased by 1,2 times due to the fermentolysis of the hardly hydrolyzable fraction (a decrease of 1,4 times); the content of lignin substances did not change significantly. On the sawdust of Larix sibirica, the amount of polysaccharides decreased by 1,3 times in comparison with the initial substrate; lignin – in 1,2 times.

The Red-belted Bracket (Fomitopsis pinicola) is one of the major decomposers of coniferous wood in Europe and can reach high densities after outbreaks of bark beetles. However, factors of dead wood type and decay stage, which determine the growth of reproductive biomass, i.e. basidiomes, remain unclear. In 2013, we surveyed 1280 dead wood objects and vital trees in spruce stands killed by the bark beetle Ips typographus in 2012, 2002, 1992 and in undisturbed stands for the presence, number, mean basidiome size and total volume of basidiomes. Living basidiomes were equally abundant on dead wood 1, 11, and 21 y after bark beetle outbreak, but were lacking on living trees. Our results indicate that F. pinicola is an effective early colonizer of the huge resource pulse of dead wood caused by the outbreak of bark beetles and basidiomes can persist for 21 y.

Summary Among wood-degrading fungi, lineages holding taxa that selectively metabolize carbohydrates without significant lignin removal (brown rot) are polyphyletic, having evolved multiple times from lignin-removing white rot fungi. Given the qualitative nature of the ‘brown rot’ classifier, we aimed to quantify and compare the temporal sequence of carbohydrate removal among brown rot clades. Lignocellulose deconstruction was compared among fungi using distinct plant substrates (angiosperm, conifer, grass). Specifically, aspen, pine and corn stalk were harvested over a 16-week time series from microcosms containing Gloeophyllum trabeum, Fomitopsis pinicola, Ossicaulis lignatilis, Fistulina hepatica, Serpula lacrymans, Wolfiporia cocos or Dacryopinax sp. After quantifying plant mass loss, a thorough compositional analysis was complemented by a saccharification test to determine wood cell wall accessibility. Mass loss and accessibility varied depending on fungal decomposer and substrate, and trajectories of loss for hemicellulosic components and cellulose differed among plant tissue types. At any given stage of decomposition, however, lignocellulose accessibility and the fraction remaining of carbohydrates and lignin within a plant tissue type were generally the same, regardless of fungal isolate. This suggests that the sequence of plant component removal at this typical scale of characterization is shared among these brown rot lineages, despite their diverse genomes and secretomes.

a bstract. The aim of this study was to investigate the composition of the fungal community associated with the red-haired bark beetle (Hylurgus ligniperda Fabricius) in two plantations of Pinus sylvestris L. located in the Kharkiv and Luhansk regions (ca. 250 km apart) in the forest-steppe zone in eastern Ukraine. In each plantation, 48 beetles were collected from butts of living trees and 48 beetles from stems of fallen trees, i.e., a total of 96. Half of the beetles from each site were used for culturing fungi and the other half for direct sequencing the internal transcribed spacer of fungal ribosomal R na ( i T s rR na ). Thirty distinct fungal taxa were identified by culturing and 31 by direct sequencing. When pooled, there were 40 fungal taxa among which Ophiostoma piceae (Munch) Sydow & P. Sydow (10.3%), Alternaria alternata (Fries) Keissler (9.7%), Ogataea neopini Nagatsuka, S. Saito & Sugiyama (8.0%), Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetzel (5.1%), Cladosporium sp. Link (5.1%) and Sydowia polyspora (Brefeld & Tavel) E. Muller (4.6%) were the most common. Species of the genus Ophiostoma were the most abundant and included five different taxa O. piceae, O. bicolor R.W. Davidson & D.E. Wells, O. ips (Rumbold) Nannfeldt, O. canum (Munch) Sydow & P. Sydow and O. rectangulosporium Ohtaka, Masuya & Yamaoka, all of which are known to be at most weak pathogens of trees. The plant pathogen Botryotinia fuckeliana and insect pathogens Isaria farinose (Holmskjold) Fries and Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Crivelli) vuillemin were also detected. Basidiomycetes were rare, among which three wood-decaying fungi Bjerkandera adusta (Willdenow) P. Karsten, Fomitopsis pinicola (Swartz) P. Karsten and Heterobasidion annosum (Fries) Brefeld were detected. In conclusion, in the forest-steppe zone in eastern Ukraine H. ligniperda is a vector of diverse communities of fungi the majority of which, if at all, are only weak pathogens of trees.

Some boreal wood fungi that are associated with forest fire or open dry habitats have an increased resistance to heat in comparison to species associated with a less specific distribution or species found in mesic forests. We hypothesize that extreme temperature-stress experienced during fires will favor species adapted to heat and, ultimately, the composition of species inhabiting logs in such habitats will change. Competitiveness after temperature stress was examined in three fire-associated species – Dichomitus squalens, Gloeophyllum sepiarium and Phlebiopsis gigantea – and three non fire-associated species – Ischnoderma benzoinum, Phellinus pini and Fomitopsis pinicola. There was a difference between the fire-associated species and the non fire-associated species with respect to competitive strength after heat stress. All fire-associated species had an advantage after heat treatment, colonizing a larger volume of wood than any non-fire-associated competitor. Our findings suggest that increased heat tolerance of mycelia can exert a competitive balance shift after forest fire. It shows that a system governed by forest fire will be dominance controlled under certain conditions. Furthermore, from a management perspective, during a prescribed burning, certain species already present in the ecosystem will be favored if the fire is not allowed to totally consume the substrates.

Amylocystis lapponica (Romell) Singer is a widely distributed wood-decaying polypore fungus found throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Despite its huge distribution range it occurs rather patchily and seems narrowly associated with old-growth forest stands. Notably, it has been used as an ‘indicator species’, believed to reflect the long-term presence of dead wood, naturalness of forest stands, and indirectly, species richness and possibly composition. In this study we focused on the last issue – whether or not there is a link between the occurrence of A. lapponica and the species richness and composition of other wood-decaying fungi. Selecting log characteristics and microclimate as similar as possible, we compared 12 logs with and 12 logs without visible fruit bodies of A. lapponica to examine: 1) if visible fruit bodies corresponded with molecular identification of the mycelia, 2) if fungal species richness and composition of the substrate were related to A. lapponica occurrence, and 3) if A. lapponica was restricted to certain parts of the log. Fungal species were recorded by inspecting visible fruit bodies and by culture isolation and ITS sequencing from wood disc samples. Laboratory and field identification of A. lapponica had 71% correspondence, and mycelia were identified in two logs without visible fruit bodies. Twice as many fungal species were detected using ITS sequencing compared to fruit body identification. Total species richness was similar between the two log categories, but number of species per log was slightly higher in A. lapponica logs. Antrodia serialis (Fr.) Donk, and possibly also Fomitopsis pinicola (Sw.:Fr.) P. Karst. and Phellinus nigrolimitatus (Romell) Bourdot & Galzin, occurred more frequently in A. lapponica logs. Mycelia of A. lapponica were restricted to less decayed parts of the wood in the centre of the middle part of the logs.

Decaying wood plays a vital role in maintaining biological diversity and ecological processes within forest ecosystems. One enhancement that may help to maintain wood-decay processes in managed forests involves the inoculation of healthy trees with fungus to create potential habitat trees to enable excavation for foraging and nesting by primary cavity nesters (i.e., woodpeckers); however, this approach has only received limited evaluation. We evaluated the inoculation of Fomitopsis pinicola into live trees in managed forests in western Washington in 1997 and 1998. In 2006, we revisited trees that were inoculated with live fungus or sterile controls, and inspected each tree for the presence of fungal growth and woodpecker activity. Of 650 trees inoculated with fungus ( n = 330) or a sterile control ( n = 320), 528 (81.2%) were alive and standing in 2006 ( n = 276 with fungus, 83.6%; n = 252 control trees, 78.8%). Trees had been lost to harvest (11.1%), blowdown (3.8%), breakage (2.9%), and had died of undetermined causes (0.9%). A higher proportion of treatment trees displayed F. pinicola conks (0.200) and mycelia (0.073; inferred to be F. pinicola ) than did control trees (0.004 conks [unknown species], 0.012 mycelia), although the difference for mycelia was marginally significant. We also found that western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ) had a higher proportion of conks (0.313) and evidence of any fungal growth (conks or mycelia; 0.393) than Douglas-firs ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ; 0.064 and 0.112, respectively). Further, we observed evidence of significantly ( P = 0.010) more woodpecker excavations and sapsucker ( Sphyrapicus spp.) foraging holes associated with the fungal inoculations (6.2%) than at control trees (1.2%). Although use by woodpeckers was limited, we suggest that this finding is ecologically significant as we observed no woodpecker use, except for limited sapsucker foraging, when we inspected trees in 2002. The fungal inoculations completed 1997–1998, to some extent, were successful as F. pinicola was documented in at least 36.8% of the treated trees. In addition to F. pinicola , an ensemble of fungi and other microorganisms was established into the inoculation wounds of both control and treatment trees, suggesting that wounding of a healthy tree under the right circumstances may be sufficient to initiate this natural process in younger-aged forests as it occurs in old-growth forests.

Dead sporocarps contribute to forest biodiversity by supporting a specialised decomposer fauna. However, detailed succession studies are few and microarthropods are rarely included. In a spruce-dominated forest reserve near Oslo in southern Norway, sporocarps of Fomitopsis pinicola with known age since death (0–5 years) were sampled and invertebrates extracted by Tullgren funnel. While living sporocarps of this species were rarely attacked by tunnelling invertebrates, dead sporocarps were rapidly colonised by a diverse fauna. The youngest pore layers were consumed first, and after five years, the remaining parts were strongly fragmented. Among 16 beetle species, Cis glabratus and Cis quadridens dominated. Another abundant group in dead sporocarps was oribatid mites belonging to the genus Carabodes, with a total of 10 species. Seven of these colonised during less than one year. While there were few significant changes in the density of adult Cis specimens during decomposition, and C. glabratus dom...

Here, we compare the fungal community composition and diversity in Amazonian Dark Earth (ADE) and the respective non-anthropogenic origin adjacent (ADJ) soils from four different sites in Brazilian Central Amazon using pyrosequencing of 18S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene. Fungal community composition in ADE soils were more similar to each other than their ADJ soils, except for only one site. Phosphorus and aluminum saturation were the main soil chemical factors contributing to ADE and ADJ fungal community dissimilarities. Differences in fungal richness were not observed between ADE and ADJ soil pairs regarding to the most sites. In general, the most dominant subphyla present in the soils were Pezizomycotina, Agaricomycotina, and Mortierellomycotina. The most abundant operational taxonomic units (OTUs) in ADE showed similarities with the entomopathogenic fungus Cordyceps confragosa and the saprobes Fomitopsis pinicola, Acremonium vitellinum, and Mortierellaceae sp., whereas OTUs similar to Aspergillus niger, Lithothelium septemseptatum, Heliocephala gracillis, and Pestalosphaeria sp. were more abundant in ADJ soils. Differences in fungal community composition were associated to soil chemical factors in ADE (P, Ca, Zn, Mg, organic matter, sum of bases, and base saturation) and ADJ (Al, potential acidity, Al saturation, B, and Fe) soils. These results contribute to a deeper view of the fungi communities in ADE and open new perspectives for entomopathogenic fungi studies. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00248-015-0703-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

In the old growth spruce-fir forest “Wilder See”, a long-term protected zone of the Black Forest National Park (Baden-Wuerttemberg, Germany), the phenology of two associated polypore fungus species on Picea abies logs, Fomitopsis pinicola and the rare red-data list species Antrodiella citrinella were investigated. We combined detailed field studies and temperature-related in-vitro growth studies. Whereas perennial fruitbodies of F. pinicola developed from late spring to autumn, the annual A. citrinella fruitbodies were formed mainly in late autumn (October, November) and again in spring (April and May). Growth studies on agar media confirm that A. citrinella grows faster at lower temperatures (5-10 °C), whereas F. pinicola is clearly superior in growth rate between 15 °C and 25 °C. This indicates that A. citrinella is a generally rare, but locally common species that may have been overlooked because of its special phenology in colder periods. The “Wilder See” area in the National Park seems to be an important refuge for the species. Its existence seems to depend on high humidity, high amount of woody debris (P. abies) and the occurrence of F. pinicola. In the presence of living A. citrinella fruitbodies, fruitbodies of F. pinicola were found to be always dead. This supports earlier speculations that the relation may be parasitic.

In this study, we screened and evaluated possibility of wood rot fungi as biocatalyst for biotransformation of sesquiterpenes. Screening were performed to select the most promising microorganisms with ability to biotransformation the substrate trans,trans-fanesol. Trans,trans-farnesol which is synthesized precursor of sesquiterpenes was used for resistance test on 19 of wood rot fungi. From the 19 tested wood rot fungi, 5 were selected by resistance test on different concentration of trans,trans-fanesol. Biotransformation was performed with selected wood rot fungi on liquid culture. The metabolites detected by GC-MS analysis were nerolidol for Laetiporus sulphureus var. miniatus (jungh) Imaz and eicosane for Coriolus versicolor (L.Fr) Prlar and isoborneol for Fomitopsis pinicola and isocyclocitral for Lampteromyces japonicas. As the results, wood rot fungi could be potential biocatalyst for biotransformation of sesquiterpenes.

Picea abies logs were inoculated with Resinicium bicolor, Fomitopsis pinicola or left un-inoculated and placed in an old-growth boreal forest. Mass loss and fungal community data were collected after 6 yr to test whether simplification of the fungal community via inoculation affects mass loss and fungal community development. Three techniques were used to survey communities: (1) observation of fruiting structures; (2) culturing on media; and (3) cloning and sequencing of ITS rDNA. Fruit body surveys detected the smallest number of species (18, 3.8 per log), DNA-based methods detected the most species (72, 31.7 per log), and culturing detected an intermediate number (23, 7.2 per log). Initial colonizer affected community development and inoculation with F. pinicola led to significantly greater mass loss. Relationships among fungal community composition, community richness and mass loss are complex and further work is needed to determine whether simplification of fungal communities affects carbon sequestration in forests.

Bark beetles, mycelia and wood were sampled from the vicinity of insect galleries in the bark of Picea abies high stumps of four different age classes in southeastern Sweden. Molecular methods were used for fungal species identification. From 203 samples a total of 21 fungal taxa were found, including 12 ascomycetes and 9 basidiomycetes. Of the filamentous fungal species, 50 % were found both in bark and bark beetles, and 37 % were found in bark, wood and bark beetles. Yeasts dominated in stumps that were 1-yr old and in control samples without insect activity. In 2- and 3-yr-old stumps, filamentous ascomycetes were present but also common wood decay basidiomycetes such as Stereum sanguinolentum , Phlebiopsis gigantea , Trichaptum abietinum and Fomitopsis pinicola were found as mycelia associated with insect galleries and on bark beetles. The results indicate that insect facilitation of the establishment of wood decay fungi cannot be neglected.

Wood-rotting fungi lead to great economic losses of lignocellulosic materials. The influence of extractives on the decay resistance of Michelia formosana wood and the antifungal activities of heartwood extract and its constituent against wood-rotting fungi were evaluated. Results revealed that extractives had a strong influence on the decay resistance of M. formosana heartwood. The unextracted heartwood block was resistant to fungi, while the extracted heartwood block was not. Antifungal activities of ethanolic extract from heartwood were assessed; results revealed that the ethanolic extract possessed good antifungal activity against wood-rotting fungi. The ethanolic extract was further separated into four fractions including n-hexane-soluble fraction, ethyl acetate-soluble fraction, n-butanol-soluble fraction, and water-soluble fraction. Among these fractions, the n-hexane-soluble fraction exhibited the best antifungal ability. An alkaloid, liriodenine, was isolated from the active n-hexane-soluble fraction. IC50 values of liriodenine against the white-rot fungi Lenzites betulina and Trametes versicolor were 0.76 and 3.50 μg/mL, respectively. IC50 values of liriodenine against the brown-rot fungi Laetiporus sulphureus, Gloeophyllum trabeum, and Fomitopsis pinicola were all lower than 2.0 μg/mL. Results indicated that liriodenine exhibited a broad spectrum of antifungal activity and great potential to develop as an environmentally benign fungicide for the preservation of lignocellulosic materials.

he study was performed in two silver-fir forests (Abies alba Mill.) located in Alto Molise, Province of Isernia: Collemeluccio, near Pescolanciano and Abeti Soprani near Capracotta. The aim of this work was to distinguish different types of wood rot on living silver fir individuals by using the Resistograph® (IML-RESI E400), a device that allows to estimate the variation of wood density by measuring the resistance to micro-perforation. The occurrence of different types of wood rot (white rot and brown rot) in living trees was pointed out and discriminated by the device. In the detected deteriorated zones, fungal pathogens and decomposers were isolated and identified, causing either white (Phellinus hartigii, Ganoderma adspersum, Heterobasidion abietinum and Armillaria ostoyae) or brown rot (Fomitopsis pinicola).

Stag beetle larvae generally feed on decaying wood; however, it was unknown whether they can use wood-rotting fungi alone as food. Here, to clarify this, newly hatched larvae of Dorcus rectus (Motschulsky) (Coleoptera: Lucanidae) were reared for 14 days on artificial diets containing a fixed amount of freeze-dried mycelia of the following fungi: Bjerkandera adusta, Trametes versicolor, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Fomitopsis pinicola. The mean incremental gain in larval body mass was greatest on diets containing B. adusta, followed by T. versicolor, P. ostreatus, and F. pinicola. The growth rate of body mass correlated positively with mycelial nitrogen content of the different fungi. It also correlated positively with the mycelial content of B. adusta in the diet. Addition of antibiotics to diets with mycelia nearly halved larval growth, indicating that larvae were able to use fungal mycelia as food without the assistance of associated microbes although the microbes positively affected larval growth. Four newly hatched larvae reared on artificial diets containing B. adusta mycelia developed to the second instar in 21–34 days; and one developed to the third (=final) instar. This study provides evidence that fungi may constitute the bulk of the diet of D. rectus larvae.

The making of high-stumps to benefit wood living organisms is a common practice in Scandinavian forestry. To minimise the cost of this action trees of low quality, e.g. rotten trees, are chosen if possible. In this study we investigated if the wood decay fungi Heterobasidion spp. affects saproxylic beetles assemblages in Norway spruce (Picea abies) high-stumps. In total we caught 43 species of saproxylic beetles (Coleoptera) of which one was red-listed. Associations with the fungi were tested on 13 beetle species and three of them showed negative associations with the occurrence of Heterobasidion, while none of the tested species showed a positive association with Heterobasidion. Species richness did not differ between infected (30) and non-infected (33) stumps, but the beetle assemblages differed to some extent. Two additional bracket fungi species were found on some of the high-stumps, Fomitopsis pinicola and Trichaptum spp. Both these fungi had beetle species significantly associated with them. Interestingly, we found that F. pinicola and Trichaptum spp. never occurred together in the same stumps. None of them, however, seemed to be affected by presence of Heterobasidion spp. In conclusion, Heterobasidion spp. infections influence the beetle fauna by disfavouring some beetle species but we did not find any species positively associated with Heterobasidion spp. This suggests that increasing the proportion of pre-rotten high-stumps could have a negative effect on beetle diversity on clear-cuts.

Nemania serpens (Pers.: Fr.) S.F. Gray var. hydnicola (Schwein.) Y.-M. Ju & J.D. Rogers is reported for the first time in Canada, fruiting on a decaying Fomitopsis pinicola sporocarp collected in Victoria, BC. Freshly ejected ascospores were germinated in culture, and produced both a Geniculosporium anamorph and the teleomorph on oatmeal agar. The isolate failed to produce teleomorphic stromata on scratch malt extract medium.

A detailed characteristic of the beetle fauna associated with Fomitopsis pinicola (Sw.: Fr.) Karst. (Basidiomycetes, Aphyllophorales) in the Urals and Transurals is given. Thirty species from 14 families have been revealed, the commonest species including Eridaulus jacquemarti Mel., Ennearthron laricinum (Mel.) (Ciidae), Dorcatoma dresdensis Hbst., D. lomnickii Rtt., D. punctulata Muls. (Anobiidae), Diaperis boleti (L.) (Tenebrionidae), Scaphisoma agaricinum (L.), S. inopinatum Lobl, S. subalpinum Rtt. (Scaphidiidae), Ostoma ferruginea (L.), and Peltis grossa (L.) (Peltidae). The main trends in the ecological and trophic specialization of mycetophilous beetles are discussed, and some regularities of formation of mycetophilous complexes at different stages of the trees fungi fruit body development are revealed.

(Ach.) Schaerer, Cl. coniocraea (Florke) Spreng., Cl. fimbriata (L.) Fr., Evernia mesomorpha Nyl., Mycoblastus sanguinarius (L.) Norman, Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl., Parmelia sulcata Tayl., Platismatia glauca (L.) W. Culb. et C. Culb., Usnea spp., and Vulpicida pinastri (Scop.) J.-E. Mattson et M.J. Lai. For mosses, the total frequency of contact between gametophytes and fungal fruiting bodies was estimated. In each test area, 100 units of substrate with fruiting bodies of F. fomentarius and 50 units of substrate with fruiting bodies of F. pinicola were examined. The analysis of occurrence of fruiting bodies on substrates with different degrees of decomposition showed that F. fomentarius and F. pinicola formed fruiting bodies mainly on wood of the second and third degrees of decomposition (figure). Up to 97% of F. fomentarius fruiting bodies and 99% of F. pinicola fruiting bodies were formed on substrates with less than 20% lichen coverage, and up to 84% of fruiting bodies of both species were found on wood substrates where lichens occupied only 1‐5%. On tree trunks with fruiting bodies, moss coverage was also low: 73‐83% of F. fomentarius and 64‐90% of F. pinicola fruiting bodies were on substrates with no more than 5% of the total area occupied by mosses. Only in the Basegi Reserve did 60% of substrates with

Polypores have been applied in traditional Chinese medicine up to the present day, and are becoming more and more popular worldwide. They show a wide range of bioactivities including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and immuno-enhancing effects. Their secondary metabolites have been the focus of many studies, but the importance of fungal strain for bioactivity and metabolite production has not been investigated so far for these Basidiomycetes. Therefore, we screened several strains from three medicinal polypore species from traditional European medicine: Fomes fomentarius, Fomitopsis pinicola and Piptoporus betulinus. A total of 22 strains were compared concerning their growth rates, optimum growth temperatures, as well as antimicrobial and antifungal properties of ethanolic fruit body extracts. The morphological identification of strains was confirmed based on rDNA ITS phylogenetic analyses. Our results showed that species delimitation is critical due to the presence of several distinct lineages, e.g. within the Fomes fomentarius species complex. Fungal strains within one lineage showed distinct differences in optimum growth temperatures, in secondary metabolite production, and accordingly, in their bioactivities. In general, F. pinicola and P. betulinus extracts exerted distinct antibiotic activities against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus at minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) ranging from 31-125 μg mL−1; The antifungal activities of all three polypores against Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, Absidia orchidis and Candida krusei were often strain-specific, ranging from 125-1000 μg mL−1. Our results highlight that a reliable species identification, followed by an extensive screening for a ‘best strain’ is an essential prerequisite for the proper identification of bioactive material.

Summary Ten taxon-specific primers were designed to amplify the Internal Transcribed Spacer of the rRNA operon of several important decay fungi of coniferous wood, including Armillaria spp., Echinodontium spp., Fomitopsis pinicola, Fuscoporia torulosa, Heterobasidion annosum sensu lato (s.l.), Onnia spp., Phaeolus schweinitzii, Phellinus weirii s.l., Pholiota spp. and Porodaedalea spp. Primers designed in this study and in a previous one for the identification of Laetiporus sulphureus and Stereum spp. were combined in two multiplex PCRs, which were tested for efficiency and specificity, and detected at least 1 pg of fungal target DNA. Target DNA at concentrations of 10−1 pg or lower can be detected with this assay using SYBR® Green Real-Time PCR. Validation assays performed on 129 naturally infected wood samples or fruiting bodies confirmed the reliability of the multiplex PCR-based diagnostic method. This method represents a simple and rapid diagnostic tool for the detection of a number of destructive wood decay fungi of conifer wood.

Mycelial characteristics of dikaryotic collections of 6 medicinal polypore mushrooms (Fomes fomentarius, Fomitopsis pinicola, Ganoderma adspersum, G. applanatum, G. lucidum, and G. resinaceum) with different geographical origins (Armenia, China, France, Iran, Italy, and Russia) were screened. A total of 42 polypore collections were molecularly identified by sequencing the internal transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal RNA genes' cluster, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed. Morphological characteristics of 37 cultures were observed on agar media (malt extract agar, potato dextrose agar) at different temperatures (25, 30, 35, and 38°C) at a pH of 6.0. Colony morphology, pigmentation of mycelium and agar, mycelial growth rate, in vitro teleomorph formation, and other macromorphological characteristics were thoroughly described and illustrated. Micromorphological features of mycelia, such as different hyphal structures, clamp cells, presence and type of asexual sporulation, chlamydospores, and others were observed. The taxonomic significance of the mycelial characteristics revealed was estimated. The obtained results will assist further biotechnological cultivation of medicinal polypore mushrooms to develop novel health care biotechnological products.

Oxalic acid secretion by brown rot wood-degrading fungi has been proposed to function in pH control and non-enzymatic biodegradation. Although oxalate production in liquid cultures of brown rot fungi commonly correlates with glucose oxidation, excess oxalate accumulation in wood during oxidative decay could impede Fe3+reduction by fungal-derived chelators and thus inhibit brown rot. In this study, we pre-treated spruce wood with various oxalate concentrations and subjected it to brown rot decay byFomitopsis pinicolaandMeruliporiaincrassatain agar- and soil-block trials. In agar-block microcosms containing wood pre-treated with 0, 1, 10 or 100 mM sodium oxalate, test fungi equalized wood oxalate and pH at week 12 of decay by either increasing or reducing wood oxalate, depending on the pre-treatment. Oxalate reductions in wood were not accompanied by increases in agar oxalate. During soil-block decay of wood pre-treated with 0 or 50 mM oxalate, oxalate and pH regulation were time-dependent and more variable. Wood oxalate levels did not increase with increasing fungal biomass (per ergosterol); however, decreases in oxalate were not explained by enhanced oxalate catabolism activity, Ca2+import, or translocation of oxalate into the soil. Our results suggest that brown rot fungi may optimize extracellular oxalate during wood decay, and that soil characteristics may influence this dynamic.

At the macroscopic level, the detection of tree rings of diffuse porous wood is still a major issue. As an alternative method to conventional preparation techniques, wood decay fungi were employed as analytic tools for tree ring analysis in diffuse porous wood. Wood blocks of sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.), silver birch (Betula pendula Roth.) and aspen (Populus tremula L.) were incubated for 4, 8 and 12 weeks with two brown rot fungi, Fomitopsis pinicola and Laetiporus sulphureus, respectively. In addition, exposure of tree rings in wood degraded under controlled conditions was compared with several sanding and staining techniques and/or combinations of the latter. The ability to discern tree rings in the treated wood varied depending on the wood spp., method applied and duration of degradation. Exposure of annual ring borders in degraded sycamore and birch wood samples was apparently superior to conventional methods. In contrast, annual ring detection in aspen wood was greatly enhanced when both methods were applied. Further studies are required to improve the potential use of wood decay fungi as analytical tools in tree ring analysis.

In most Swedish felling operations high stumps are created from living trees to increase the amounts of dead wood in the forest. The fauna of saproxylic beetles and aradid bugs (Heteroptera) in spruce (Picea abies) high stumps were studied to determine which characteristics (diameter, height, amount of bark and fungal flora) had the strongest influence on the species composition. The practical aim was to see whether it is possible to increase the biodiversity values by management recommendations. The high stumps (n=59) were situated in the middle boreal zone in Sweden and were 6 years old. The insects were sampled by sieving 0.25 m2 bark on each stump In total, 803 saproxylic beetles and Aradus bugs were found, representing 42 different species, five of which were red-listed. The most important factor for determining the beetle community was the presence or absence of two polyporous fungi, Fomitopsis pinicola and Trichaptum abietinum. Other factors were much less important, indicating that it is difficult...

In the control of the fungus Heterobasidion annosum the most frequently applied method is stump treatment with biological preparations containing dehydrated spores of the saprophytic fungus Phlebiopsis gigantea (syn. Peniophora gigantea /Fr./ Massee). In the field, this fungus is a competitor to the fungus Heterobasidion annosum. This paper presents the results of laboratory analyses of interactions of decay fungi isolated from the root and butt of uprooted spruce trees in the Nature Park "Stara Planina", and their relation to the fungus Ph. gigantea. The interactions of these fungi were analyzed at the temperatures of 20?C, 25?C and 30?C.

The aim of this study was to select fast growing strains able to resist Trichoderma viride in a short-time experiment to be realized with a concurrently performed fruiting experiment. The test was realized in Teflon® tubes. Five strains of Grifola frondosa (Dicks: Fr.) Gray and five strains of Fomitopsis pinicola (Swartz: Fr.) Karst. were used as test organisms. Different factors that can influencing substrate invasion rate and resistance to T. viride were analyzed: substrate composition, quantity of substrate included in the tubes and colony size of the tested strain at the time of the inoculation of the pest. Results sometimes showed great variations in behavior between strains, but also for a given strain growing on different substrates, indicating the importance of trophic factors in the resistance capacity. We also showed that substrate quantity and colony size can modify the capacity to resist. However there was no correlation between growth rate on agar-malt medium, substrate invasion rate, resistance to T. viride and fruiting capacity, showing the importance to test these different factors to select the best strains which can be further recombined.

Activity of fungi participating in the dead wood decomposition was studied in the Velký Polom Nature Reserve, Protected Landscape Area Železne hory. Two game-proof fences of an area of 0.30 ha (570 m alt.) and 0.19 ha (620 m alt.) were used as permanent sample plots. In both the plots, activities were monitored of wood-destroying fungi in 126.82 m 3 dead wood, 104.05 m 3 of which were in beech. After conversion to an area, the volume amounts to 258.82 m 3 per ha. In the whole reserve, almost 220 species of macromycetes were recorded in the course of a mycological survey. Wood-destroying fungi are the dominant component of mycoflora representing more than 50% identified taxa of in the period under study. The proportion of mycorrhizal fungi amounted to 14%. A series of macromycetes considered to be saprophytes is bound to products of wood decomposition. Fomes fomentarius (L.) Fr., Fomitopsis pinicola (Sowerby) P. Karst., Ustulina deusta (Fr.) Petrak, Hypoxylon fragiforme (Pers.) Kickx, Ganoderma lipsiense (Batsch) Atk. and the genus Armillaria were the predominant species of wood-decaying fungi. As for rare macro-fungi, it is possible to mention Ascotremella faginea (Peck) Seaver, Stropharia albocrenulata (Peck) Kreisel and Tricholomopsis decora (Fr.) Singer.

We have approached species identification of wood decay fungi in construction wood by means of sequencing ribosomal DNA. Sequencing of the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS), which includes the 5.8S rDNA, is straightforward and provides a basis for species identification. Identification was either by BLAST search on sequences in GenBank or phylogenetic analysis. A number of important wood decay fungi such asSerpula lacrymans, S. himantioides, Antrodia serialis, A. sinuosa, Gloeophyllum sepiarium, Fomitopsis pinicola, Resinicium bicolorandJunghuhnia collabenshave been successfully identified from fruitbodies and directly from wood samples. Sequence variants were found within the species sampled includingS. himantioides, the close relative ofS. lacrymans.But, among 27 samples from fruitbodies and mycelium ofS. lacrymans, unexpectedly, no sequence variation was detected.

Wood degradation by two basidiomycetes, Fomitopsis pinicola and Laetiporus sulphureus was studied in one conifer and four broadleaved trees: Picea abies (Norway spruce), Acer pseudoplatanus (sycamore), Betula pendula (birch), Quercus robur (common oak) and Robinia pseudoacacia (robinia). Observations of birefringence under polarized light showed that in all hosts both brown rot fungi affected cells of the early wood before those of the late wood. Degradation of cellulose, as shown by the loss of birefringence, was apparent after 6 weeks in the cell wall of fibres and fibre tracheids, but even after 12 weeks, axial parenchyma showed no signs of degradation. The results indicate that both brown rot fungi cause higher weight losses in hosts (P. abies and B. pendula) with a small amount of parenchyma cells, whereas the lowest weight losses are associated with wood containing a high amount of parenchyma cells (Q. robur and R. pseudoacacia). Resistance of parenchyma cells to degradation by brown rot fungi appears to be related to the cell wall morphology of parenchyma cells and may also reflect a low co-evolutionary adaptation of brown rot fungi to the xylem of broadleaved trees.

This study investigated the genetic variation of white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) in decay resistance and its correlation with wood density and growth. Three fungi were examined, a brown-rot fungus (Gloeophyllum trabeum), a white-rot fungus (Trametes versicolor), and a standing-tree-decay fungus (Fomitopsis pinicola). The decay resistance was inversely related to the growth rate of the fungi on heartwood blocks. A total of 270 trees of 35 families were harvested from 36-year-old provenance–progeny trials at two sites through a thinning operation. The narrow-sense heritabilities of white spruce decay resistance to brown rot and white rot were 0.21 and 0.27, respectively. There were no significant differences in resistance to standing-tree-decay fungus among the families. The phenotypic and genetic correlations between the growth rate of brown rot on heartwood blocks and wood density were positive, but the genetic correlation between wood density and the growth rate of white rot on heartwood blocks was negative but not significant. The results indicate that the different species of fungi have different relationships with the annual growth of trees and wood density, and suggest that selection for wood density in white spruce might lead to an increase in resistance to white rot, but a decrease in resistance to brown rot.

High stumps are often retained at clear cuttings to increase the abundance of habitat patches for saproxylic (wood living) insects. However, these high stumps constitutes a very uniform dead wood habitat which probably supports only a part of the saproxylic fauna. Therefore, we compared the saproxylic fauna of high spruce stumps with the fauna of long and short felled boles of spruce. We also investigated the associations between insect species and polypore fungi growing in the wood. All wood units were created at the same occasion on a clear cut in SW Sweden. The dominating species of bark beetles and longhorn beetles were surveyed in the first year after the cutting. Four years later, the fauna was sampled again by sifting bark samples and all species found were determined. In total we recorded six species early in the succession and 43 four years later. Two species were red-listed. Three out of five statistically tested early successional species had significant associations with some of the wood types, while the corresponding figures later in the succession were six of 15. Three of the 15 species in the late succession were also significantly associated with the presence of fruiting bodies of the polypore fungus Fomitopsis pinicola. We concluded that retaining felled wood in addition to high stumps may provide an important means of diversifying the dead wood substrates, which may in turn increase the number of saproxylic species on a site.