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Broadening brand positioning is challenging because strong brand images are resistant to change. Consumers are likely to reject attempts to associate new discrepant attributes due to incongruence with the brand's existing image. This research presents a contextual and competitive interference-based advertising tactic that facilitates acceptance of new attribute information into familiar brand meaning. Advertisers can influence new attribute associations by featuring an advertising image similar in both style and meaning to a competitor. Boundary conditions image similarity and competitor selection, and process variable response time, are investigated. This tactic presents a strategic way to use the cluttered advertising environment advantageously. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research (Barone and Miniard 1999) has demonstrated that brand usage can moderate the extent to which comparative ad information has the potential to deceive consumers. The current study extends that research by considering how gender interacts with brand usage to moderate the susceptibility of consumers to copy X copy interactions, a potentially deceptive effect associated with partial comparative advertising. Results from the present investigation indicate that, for comparison brand users, males were more susceptible than females. In contrast, for nonusers of the comparison brand, females exhibited greater evidence of this effect than did male nonusers. Implications of these findings for public policy and directions for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research has viewed competitive interference as undesirable due to its negative effects on brand-attribute recall. We propose that competitive interference is not inherently bad but may be beneficial under certain conditions. In the context of an established brand promoting a new attribute, we show that the new attribute information is interfered with by the brand's old attributes, causing lower retrieval. However, in the presence of competitive advertising, old attribute information is suppressed, and new attribute information is successfully retrieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on a cross-cultural study which tests the robustness of the approach developed by Gupta and Gould (1997) concerning use of product placements in movies. Using their American data as a comparison point, additional data using the same questionnaire were collected in Austria and France. As an international medium in which movies freely cross borders, product placement is also a less adaptable one, relative to commercials since it remains in the movie regardless of the nation where it is shown. Applying a three-pronged framework which considered country, product and individual differences and their interactive effects, the results of this study indicate the ways in which all three have an impact on the acceptability of product placements and on potential purchase behavior. Finally, implications for managing and further researching product placements based on this framework are drawn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Products vary in the degree to which they are members of product categories. Understanding how product attributes influence product categorization is important for marketing decisions about product development, brand extension, and product positioning. Existing attribute-level measures of product attitude emphasize evaluation rather than categorization. Measures of category membership either are at the overall product level or emphasize feature-based attributes, whereas product attributes are often continuous in nature. A comprehensive approach for conceptualizing product categorization is provided by fuzzy set theory, with its basic postulate that no clear boundaries exist between members and nonmembers of a fuzzy set. The authors conceptualize product categories as fuzzy sets in which products have degrees of membership along specific attributes, argued to arise as a result of the degree to which a product possesses an attribute. Two fuzzy set-based measures of category membership are developed that assess gradedness of category membership at the attribute level, which is then combined across attributes to reach overall measures of gradedness for a product. The results of a study demonstrate the validity of these measures and illustrate important attribute-level analyses that are not possible with existing approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research has focused on early entrant advantage rather than on theories that explain and predict how late entrants can surpass the early entrant's performance. In this research, the authors propose that learning about new brands is influenced by the way the attributes of later entrants compare with attributes of the first. In three experiments, the authors show that attributes that differentiate later entrants from the first entrant are better remembered and listed more often in judgment formation protocols if the attributes are comparable along some common aspect (i.e., they are alignable differences) than if they do not correspond to any attributes of the first entrant (i.e., they are nonalignable differences). The impact of greater memorability of alignable over nonalignable differences is that later entrants whose attributes are superior to those of the first entrant can come to be preferred over the first entrant when the attributes are alignable differences but not when they are nonalignable differences. These findings have important implications for product entry, differentiation, and positioning strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of comparative advertising has escalated from an occasional, partially disguised acknowledgement of the competition to direct, point-by-point comparisons of the sponsored and competing brands. This article presents a conceptual framework for classifying and evaluating different comparison advertising formats. The framework identifies different formats along two multi-level dimensions. Examples of several research questions that could be addressed using the framework are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pictures that exemplify verbal product attribute information in an ad are argued to enhance ad recall only when the verbal information is of low imagery. When the verbal information is of high imagery, self-generated images ore expected to minimize the effect of externally provided pictures on the recall of verbal information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although empirical evidence shows that advertising wears out over time and that advertising pulsation may be superior to a strategy of constant spending, current advertising models neither represent the wearout phenomenon nor consider pulsation as an optimal strategy. In this article, the wearout phenomenon is represented in a model which distinguishes between level stimuli and differential stimuli of advertising. The model is applied to several brands, and both advertising stimuli are found to be significant. A pulsation strategy is shown to be optimal under both an unconstrained and a constrained advertising budget. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A three (message appeal: supportive, brand X, and comparative) by two (product class utility: social and functional) by three (information load: low, medium, and high) factorial experimental design (with covariates) was used to explore communications effectiveness of the three modes of advertising appeals. ANOVA results show that the comparative mode appears to be superior only for the affective responses to the ad itself. The brand X mode of message appeal generally is superior to other modes for cognitive, affective, and conative responses toward the promoted brand. However, the differences are only partially significant at p < .05. In no case is the supportive mode superior. Some weak evidence of information overload is also uncovered. Several personality variables did not have significant effects on the relative effectiveness of the different appeals. Lack of substantial interaction effects among the three factors indicates that advertisers can determine message appeal, amount of information provided, and type of products to be promoted independently of each other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To reduce the burden on subjects, a five-wave national telephone panel used to track the introduction of a new brand of subcompact automobile evaluated a different subset of competing brands. MANOVA revealed significant differences in the evaluation of both the new brand and an established brand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The purpose of this study is to identify whether brands positioned in customers’ minds with features, abstract, benefit, or surrogate bases differ in their favorability, credibility, and differentiation. First, focus group studies were conducted to determine attributes related with automobiles and to select the automobile brands. Then, a survey was conducted to examine the effectiveness of brands that have different positions in customers’ minds. A perceptual map was derived through correspondence analysis. Results of Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-WhitneyUtests revealed that brands positioned on consumers’ minds with different positioning bases differ in their favorability, differentiation, and credibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the effects of mixed emotions on the positioning and on the intention to purchase different categories of branded products (i.e., Attractiveness-products, Expertise-products, and Trustworthiness-products), in relation to their main component of credibility (Ohanian, 1990). On the basis of a focus group (n = 12) aimed to identify the three branded products used as stimuli and a pre-test (n = 240) directed to discover emotions elicited by them, two studies (n = 630; n = 240) were carried out. Positioning and multiple regression analyses showed that positive and negative emotions are positively related with the positioning and the purchase intention of Attractiveness-products, and, respectively, positively and negatively related with those of Trustworthiness-products; whereas negative emotions are negatively associated with those of Expertise-products. Brand Emotional Credibility--i.e., the emotional believability of the brand positioning signals--may help to identify unconscious elements and the simultaneous importance of mixed emotions associated with different products to match consumers' desires and expectations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – This paper aims to contribute to the empirical validation of the relationship model as it applies to the case of major national brands positioned in the frequently purchased packaged goods markets, and propose the perceived brand relationship orientation concept as an additional antecedent of trust, affective commitment and attitudinal loyalty. Yet, for a relationship to exist, the parties need to be mutually considered as potential relational partners. This paper seeks to introduce the concept of perceived brand relationship orientation, which is considered, along with perceived quality, as a significant direct antecedent of relationship quality (trust and affective commitment) and, indirectly, attitudinal loyalty. Design/methodology/approach – The empirical application involves major national brands positioned in frequently purchased packaged goods food categories (ice cream and frozen meals). The conceptualization and measurement of the perceived brand relationship orientation bears on a qualitative analysis of marketing experts and consumers. Refinement and validation of measures are applied to a convenience sample of 153 students and finally to a sample of 404 consumers, using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Structural equation modeling is used to test the model and hypotheses. Findings – First, the authors validate the relationship marketing model in the case of strong national brands positioned in the frequently purchased packaged goods sector. The authors show that perceived quality impacts relationship quality (trust and affective commitment), which in turn influences attitudinal loyalty. Second, in addition to the effects of perceived quality, the authors show that perceived brand relationship orientation has direct positive impacts on trust and affective commitment and, in turn, has an indirect impact on attitudinal loyalty. However, this effect is limited to the case where consumers have a high (versus low) level of attitude toward the brand. Research limitations/implications – The application is limited to only two product categories and to strong national brands that enjoy high levels of perceived quality and attitude. Also, the model could be connected to behavioral loyalty metrics, in addition to attitudinal loyalty. The moderating impacts of relational disposition toward the brand should also be tested in future research. Practical implications – To develop consumers' attitudinal loyalty, brands must invest in programs converting efficiently perceived quality into trust and affective commitment as bases for differentiation and competitive advantage. Implications for brands' communication and distribution policies come along together with the necessity of enhancing the contacts and dialogue between the brand and the consumers. This confirms the potential outputs of brands' CRM strategies in the case of frequently purchased packaged good categories. Originality/value – The conceptualization of BPRO in the case of frequently purchased packaged good categories is a new step in the consumer-brand relationship understanding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite extensive research, the relationship between store brand loyalty and store loyalty remains uncertain. Recent research suggest a nonmonotonic relationship between store brand loyalty and store loyalty: positive up to a certain store brand loyalty level, after which it becomes negative (inverted U). However, existing arguments suggest this relationship may relate to the competitive positioning of store brands, especially their price-quality positioning. The more quality-oriented the store brand positioning, the more favorable the effect of store brand loyalty appears to be on store loyalty. An empirical study, focused on retailers that simultaneously offer several store brands with different price-quality positions, corroborates this proposition. The store brand loyalty level at which store brand loyalty induces a negative effect on store loyalty occurs earlier when the store brand positioning stresses price instead of quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Positioning is the game in the minds of consumers, which marketer has to play to get into it and place own brand by breaking the clutter of the advertisements. It is a structured system which creates a differential identity, awareness, image, personality, salience through differential communication in the target market. In practice, now days companies are putting ads on parking meters, hotel elevators, and even in washroom, they thinks that more clutter will generate sales, which is wrong. Here only positioning of brand in the consumer's mind will work. In the current study, our main concern is to explore the constructs and indicators to measure brand positioning. On the front of implication, this study will provide an insight to the academicians and the people of brand managerial practice in carrying out the study in different related areas in finding actual perceived psychology of the customers regarding the brands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper tests the application of a newly developed typology of positioning strategies in South Africa. Following content analyses of firms' (domestic and foreign) advertisements (e.g., Daihatsu, MARMIC Used Spares, First National Bank, South African Airways, LAPTOP Technologies (PTY) LTD., First Bowring insurance Brokers, Lucent Technologies, Grinaker Telecom, Sanlam Properties, Mitsubishi, e-TV, M-Net). the study reveals that firms operating in South Africa lend to focus mainly on branding activities (i.e., "the brand name") and only secondarily on positioning strategies aimed at portraying "attractiveness," "friendly service!" and "affordability." Furthermore, firms place little emphasis on positioning strategies and activities depicting discrimination/selectivity in segmentation, that is, "the social class system" and other issues about nationalistic emotions. This study offers support as to the stability of the adopted typology of positioning strategies in the South African market setting. The paper concludes that culture is not a significant factor in explaining positioning activities. Conclusions, managerial implications, limitations, and indications for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with an experimental investigation of positioning new brands. For this purpose, a management game was carried out with students. The brands introduced in the cause of the game were analysed in respect to their positions in a two-dimensional feature space. We try to find out which of the two strategies, niche policy and imitation, is more frequently used in complex decision situations and if there is a difference in profits. Furthermore, we want to find out, whether differences of prices and advertising exist in our experiment depending on the positioning strategy used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The essence of entrepreneurship is "effectual action". Researchers at the entrepreneurial/marketing interface suggest that small firms adapt marketing theory to their needs, undertaking a range of emergent actions in response to day-to-day events and problems, without recourse to formal planning or research. By way of contrast, brands require guided action, in order to build a sustainable position in the marketplace, while research also reveals that small specialist firms increase their chance of failure if they undertake a range of unguided actions that lead to niche drift. Based upon an in-depth case study, identifies that SMEs do benefit from constant actions, but only if guided by a strong set of positioning values, which are diffused into an organisational culture, primarily via the actions of the leader. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents a study that examined different potential brand positioning strategies for financial services firms. Relationship between the positioning strategies and customer vulnerability; Concept of brand positioning; Importance of customer defection or retention to financial services firms.

The objective of brand positioning is to place a brand that is clearly distinguishable from competitors' brands on the market. The principal aim is to ensure that the brand occupies a unique position on the market and that it is endowed with a precisely defined profile with clear-cut contours. The basic idea underlying this analysis is that consumers' perceptions of the various brands can be conceived as a multidimensional space in which individual brands are positioned. A product's positioning is determined from its position on the relevant dimensions of the perceptual space, its position on the various product attribute vectors and its position with respect to other brands. This paper uses correspondence analysis to reconstruct a space, in order to connect the relevant brand attributes with the drivers of behaviour, such as utility components and individual values. An empirical investigation shows the usefulness of this approach for product and advertising policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the concept and process of integrated marketing communication (IMC). Initially, IMC was intended to ensure that all marketing communication messages are similar. The principles of IMC include the importance of retaining customers and treating communication as an ongoing and interactive process. The practices of IMC include the integration of brand positioning into all messages and database-driven segmentation and targeting, among others. It is noted that there are also several barriers in the application of IMC. However, despite the lack of IMC understanding, metrics and proper reward systems, the outlook for IMC adoption is positive.

UK fashion retailing is characterised by high levels of market concentration, centralisation and outlet standardisation. In the pursuit of market share, the multiple fashion retailers are implementing branding strategies that aim to differentiate their product offer and reinforce their market positioning. Empirical research, via key informant interviews, examined the branding decisions of two multiple fashion retailers and established four main methods of brand differentiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A special case of three-mode factor analysis is used to portray the systematic structure underlying asymmetric cross elasticities for a broad class of market-share attraction models. Analysis of the variation over retail outlets and weeks reveals competitive patterns corresponding to sales for the major brands in the market as well as patterns reflecting shelf-price competition. Analysis of the brand domain results in a joint space. One set of brand positions portrays how brands exert influence over the competition. The other set of points portrays how brands are influenced by others. The interset distances (angles) provide direct measures of competitive pressures. Maps are formed as spatial representations of each of the competitive patterns discovered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given today's strong emphasis on segmentation and niche marketing, we often overlook the value of broad approaches to our served markets. Ann Keely feels that the buying process can sometimes create a number of opportunities for customers to consider purchasing a brand. In this article, she describes the concept of maxi-niching and shows how it can increase the odds that customers will select a particular brand. In its broadest sense, the process of maxi-niching involves developing perfect products. More realistically, it focuses on maximizing the number and diversity of strengths in the brand's profile. Thus, the brand occupies a varied collection of preference niches, increasing its odds of selecting and tipping chance to its advantage. INSET: BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two studies examined cognitive responses to comparative advertising that was valuated, i.e., was either negative or positive. Negative comparative advertising featured the advertised brand derogating the comparison brand (I'm OK, you're not OK). Positive comparative advertising claimed superiority over the comparison brand in a nonderogatory manner (You're OK. I'm more OK). Subjects were exposed to either a negative comparative ad or a positive comparative ad. In study I, the ad featured either a high or low share advertised brand and either a high or low share comparison brand while in study 2, the ad featured advertised and comparison brands with either a strong or weak reputation. Across both studies, it was found that negative comparative advertising evoked significantly higher counteraugmentation and lower claim acceptance than its positive counterpart. Also, when the advertised brand had a high share relative to the comparison brand, counterargumentation was also and claim acceptance was higher vis-a-vis when the advertised brand had a low share relative to the comparison brand. Findings pertaining to brand reputation were mixed. Managerial and future research implications of the findings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Support for widespread use of brand extension does not seem to exist but that is not to say that under some conditions, and under the control of management who understand the potential dangers of the practice, the practice might be strategically appropriate. The inherent disadvantages of brand extension, such as spillover risks, mean it should only be used where it might significantly increase the performance of the new product release. This article has attempted to put forward some tentative rules for using and managing the marketing strategy of brand extension. Put very simply the trick seems to be to: • use brand extension only on products which are going into a mature category. If you are in the fortunate position to be able to launch a pioneering product then keep maximum positioning flexibility by using a new brand name; • use brand extension for products which preferably share those features of the original brand which were an important part of the original's differential advantage; • avoid "me too" product launches and try to think of your brand name the same way you would your advertising, that is, it can do wonders to a product with a true differential advantage but no amount of advertising will help a product which does not offer anything new to the customer; • give the same amount of advertising and promotional support as you would a new name product, do not expect the existing brand name to automatically give you high awareness. Maintaining brand equity is about keeping your bond with the customer. Brand extension may have an important part to play in building and maintaining this equity but it does not seem to be the avenue for cheap product launches. Using brand extension properly seems to be about respecting the things that built your brand in the first place, by making sure any brand extensions are quality product releases which are well supported by marketing effort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The positioning and pricing of a new brand requires knowledge about the relationship of both demand and cost with potential attribute locations and prices. This paper addresses this problem and illustrates it in the context of the automobile market. Multi-attribute expected utility theory which allows for consumer uncertainty about the brands is used to model individuals' behavior. Attribute weights are estimated from market survey data on brands' attributes and preferences using LINMAP as an estimation procedure. Expected utility is then updated using the multinomial logit model and choice data to account for the observation that stated preferences do not perfectly reflect the eventual choice. It is hypothesized that when faced with an actual choice price may become more important to the consumer, while other attributes may become more or less important than is reflected in stated preferences. The resulting estimated choice probabilities are aggregated to form demand functions facing each brand which depend on all brands' prices and attribute space locations. Assuming there is a price equilibrium in the existing market and that firms have the same variable cost function, variable costs as a function of a brand's attribute levels are estimated. Given the demand and cost functions facing each firm including the potential new entrant, the profit maximizing positioning and pricing of a new brand is analyzed using a game theoretic approach. A solution is sought under the assumption that incumbents react to entry by changing their prices. Possible approaches to the translation of the perceptual attribute positioning of the new brand to physical and engineering attributes are reviewed. Improvements and future extensions of the study are discussed... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]