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Background: Microbiota succession determines the flavor and quality of fermented foods. Quantitative PCR-based quantitative microbiome profiling (QMP) has been applied broadly for microbial analysis from absolute abundance perspectives, transforming microbiota ratios into counts by normalizing 16S ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) gene sequencing data with gene copies quantified by quantitative PCR. However, the application of QMP in fermented foods is still limited., Results: QMP elucidated microbial succession of Taiwanese pickled cabbage. In the spontaneous first-round fermentation (FR), the 16S rRNA gene copies of total bacteria increased from 6.1 to 10 log copies mL -1 . The dominant lactic acid bacteria genera were successively Lactococcus, Leuconostoc and Lactiplantibacillus. Despite the decrease in the proportion of Lactococcus during the succession, the absolute abundance of Lactococcus still increased. In the backslopping second-round fermentation (SR), the total bacteria 16S rRNA gene copies increased from 7.6 to 9.9 log copies mL -1 . The addition of backslopping starter and vinegar rapidly led to a homogenous microbial community dominated by Lactiplantibacillus. The proportion of Lactiplantibacillus remained consistently around 90% during SR, whereas its absolute abundance exhibited a continuous increase. In SR without vinegar, Leuconostoc consistently dominated the fermentation., Conclusion: The present study highlights that compositional analysis would misinterpret microbial dynamics, whereas QMP reflected the real succession profiles and unveiled the essential role of vinegar in promoting Lactiplantibacillus dominance in backslopping fermentation of Taiwanese pickled cabbage. Quantitative microbiome profiling (QMP) was found to be a more promising approach for the detailed observation of microbiome succession in food fermentation compared to compositional analysis. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Kimchi cabbage, the key ingredient in kimchi, is cultivated year-round to meet high production demands. This study aimed to examine the effects of seasonal harvesting (spring, summer, fall, and winter) on the microbial and metabolic profiles of kimchi during 30 days of fermentation. Lactic acid bacteria distribution is notably influenced by seasonal variations, with Latilactobacillus dominant in fall-harvested kimchi group and Weissella prevailing in spring, summer, and winter. The microbial communities of spring and fall group exhibited similar profiles before fermentation, whereas the microbial communities and metabolic profiles of spring and summer group were similar after 30 days of fermentation. Seasonal disparities in metabolite concentrations, including glutamic acid, serine, and cytosine, persist throughout fermentation. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the substantial impact of seasonal harvesting of kimchi cabbage on the microbial and metabolic characteristics of kimchi, providing valuable insights into producing kimchi with diverse qualities., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Vegetable sauerkraut is a traditional fermented food. Due to oxidation reactions that occur during storage, the quality and flavor in different periods will change. In this study, the quality evaluation and flavor characteristics of 13 groups of vegetable sauerkraut samples with different storage time were analyzed by using physical and chemical parameters combined with electronic nose. Photographs of samples of various periods were collected, and a convolutional neural network (CNN) framework was established. The relationship between total phenol oxidative decomposition and flavor compounds was linearly negatively correlated. The vegetable sauerkraut during storage can be divided into three categories (full acceptance period, acceptance period and unacceptance period) by principal component analysis and Fisher discriminant analysis. The CNN parameters were fine-tuned based on the classification results, and its output results can reflect the quality changes and flavor characteristics of the samples, and have better fitting, prediction capabilities. After 50 epochs of the model, the accuracy of three sets of data namely training set, validation set and test set recorded 94%, 85% and 93%, respectively. In addition, the accuracy of CNN in identifying different quality sauerkraut was 95.30%. It is proved that the convolutional neural network has excellent performance in predicting the quality of Szechuan Sauerkraut with high reliability., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Kimchi is one of the primary sources of high sodium content in the Korean diet. Low-sodium kimchi is commercially manufactured to minimize the health effects of high salt. We investigated the influence of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as starter culture in combination with 1% or 2.5% salt on the survival of pathogenic Escherichia coli and physicochemical properties of kimchi during fermentation at 10 °C and 25 °C. Among ten strains of LAB isolated from kimchi, Leuconostoc mesenteroides (KCTC 13374) and Lactobacillus plantarum (KCTC 33133) exhibited antimicrobial activities against pathogenic E. coli (EPEC, ETEC, and E. coli O157:H7) and strong tolerance to low pH (2 and 3) and 0.3% bile salts. Thus, L. mesenteroides and L. plantarum were used as starter cultures for kimchi that contained 1% and 2.5% salt. All pathogenic E. coli strains survived in kimchi regardless of starter cultures or salt concentration for over 15 days at 10 °C, but they died off within 4 days at 25 °C. Survival of pathogenic E. coli was better in naturally fermented kimchi (titratable acidity:0.65%) than kimchi fermented with starter cultures (titratable acidity:1.0%). At 10 °C, the average delta value of E. coli O157:H7 (16.15 d) was smaller than those of EPEC (20.76 d) and ETEC (20.20 d) in naturally fermented kimchi. Overall, survival ability of E. coli O157:H7 was lower than EPEC and ETEC, although differences were not significant. Reduced salt concentration from 2.5% to 1% in kimchi did not affect the growth of LAB and the fermentation period. Pathogenic E. coli died at a faster rate in kimchi fermented with starter cultures and 1% salt than in naturally fermented kimchi with 2.5% salt., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A metabolomics approach was employed to investigate differences and correlations among key odorants and non-volatile metabolites in broccoli juices fermented by plant- and animal-derived Pediococcus pentosaceus. Forty volatile metabolites were identified by headspace solid-phase microextraction/gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. According to orthogonal projections to latent structures-differential analysis, 24 and 21 differential volatiles were detected after fermentation by plant- and animal-derived P. pentosaceus, respectively. The concentrations of 10 odorants (OAV ≥ 1) detected by gas chromatography-olfactometry changed significantly after fermentation by P. pentosaceus. Using ultrahigh-pressure liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry, 49.47% of the non-volatile metabolites were classified as lipids and lipid-like molecules. The relative expressions of five non-volatile metabolites that exhibited significant correlations with odorants using Spearman correlation analysis changed significantly after fermentation. Fermentation with animal- and plant-derived P. pentosaceus can therefore change key odorants and non-volatile metabolites in broccoli juice that contribute to the characteristic organoleptic properties of products., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Consumption of nutrient-rich seaweeds and fermented nondairy foods represent fast growing trends among health-minded consumers. Assessment of lacto-fermented seaweed was performed to address these trends, and to offer shelf-life extension and product diversification for fresh kelps. The objectives were to evaluate the effects of kelp species and inclusion level on fermentation kinetics, physicochemical quality, safety, shelf-life, and consumer acceptability of a seaweed sauerkraut-style product. Six formulations with different inclusion levels (25, 50, and 75%) of shredded kelp (sugar kelp, SK or winged kelp, WK) were mixed with cabbage, 2% salt, and inoculated with Lactobacillus plantarum (approximately 10 6 CFU/g) and Leuconostoc mesenteroides (approximately 10 1 CFU/g). Products were processed in triplicate, fermented until a target pH of ≤4.6 was achieved, and sampled periodically for 60 days. Kelp species and inclusion level significantly affected most variables tested. The most rapid fermentation (3 days), as evidenced by pH decrease, lactic acid bacteria counts, and lactic acid levels, was noted in WK formulations. Some SK formulations took up to 14 days to achieve the target pH, and coliforms persisted to a greater extent in the SK formulations. Higher levels of kelp decreased the fermentation rate and concentration of fermentable sugars in the brine, but increased the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the sauerkrauts. Despite differences in instrumental color (L * a * b * ) and texture (shear force) among formulations, overall liking as rated by a consumer panel was not significantly affected by species or inclusion level. Results support the use of lacto-fermentation in the production of refrigeration-stable seaweed sauerkraut-style product. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Health-conscious consumers are becoming increasingly interested in plant-based diets and fermented foods, and the development of novel seaweed sauerkraut-style products can help to meet these needs. This study demonstrated the successful production of a sauerkraut-style product formulated with up to 50% farm-raised kelp. Physical, chemical, microbiological, and consumer acceptability testing established lactic acid fermentation as a viable method for shelf life extension and value addition of fresh kelps. These results provide science-based information on an alternative processing method for cultivated seaweeds and can assist the industry in product diversification efforts., (© 2021 Institute of Food Technologists®.)

Aim: The aim of this study was to study the effects of salt concentrations on the microbial communities, physicochemical properties, metabolome profiles and sensory characteristics during the fermentation of traditional northeast sauerkraut., Methods and Results: Northeast sauerkraut was spontaneously fermented under four salt concentrations (0·5, 1·5, 2·5 and 3·5%, w/w). The result of microbiological analysis showed that the population of lactic acid bacteria in 2·5%-salted sauerkraut was significantly higher than that in the other samples. Correspondingly, the speed of decrease in pH and accumulation of acids were the highest in 2·5%-salted sauerkraut. The glucose (analysed by HPLC) in 2·5%-salted sauerkraut was consumed more completely to produce higher levels of organic acids compared to those in the other samples. Principle component analysis showed clear differences in the metabolites of sauerkraut according to different salt concentrations. A higher level of volatiles (detected by HS-SPME/GC-MS) was identified in 2·5%-salted sauerkraut, and sensory evaluation demonstrated that 2·5%-salted sauerkraut had the best sensory characteristics., Conclusion: The best quality of sauerkraut was obtained from fermented under 2·5% salt concentration., Significance and Impact of the Study: This study facilitated the understanding of the effects of salt on the sauerkraut fermentation and may be useful for developing the quality of sauerkraut., (© 2020 The Society for Applied Microbiology.)

This study aimed to investigate the effects of salt concentration on the microbial community and flavor metabolites formed during northeast sauerkraut fermentation using a starter culture consisting of a combination Leuconostoc mesenteroides ORC 2 and Lactobacillus plantarum HBUAS 51041. The results revealed a correlation between microbiota and flavor metabolites, with the top 20 genera being identified using Illumina MiSeq. Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc were dominant genera throughout the fermentation process, and PCoA showed that the salt concentration had distinct impacts on the microbial community. The most abundant genus Lactobacillus (88.46%) was observed in the 0.5% salted sauerkraut at day 30. Forty-six flavor metabolites were identified by HS-SPME/GC-MS. The relative contents of esters, aldehydes and ketones showed the highest values in sauerkraut fermented with a 0.5% salt concentration. Sauerkraut fermented at 2.5 and 3.5% salt were characterized by higher relative contents of acids, alcohols, isothiocyanates and hydrocarbons. Spearman's rank correlation test results showed that Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus and Bacillus were closely related to flavor metabolites. These results showed the effects of salt concentration on fermentation of northeast sauerkraut, revealing that sauerkraut fermented with 0.5% salt possessed a higher abundance of Lactobacillus and accumulated more flavor compounds (esters, aldehydes, ketones, nitriles and sulfides), providing a potential alternative approach to meet the preference of consumers for desirable aromatic quality. The results of this study may contribute to the industrial production of sauerkraut in Northeastern China., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Capsaicinoids in red pepper powder are known to show anti-bacterial effects; however, their effects during kimchi fermentation are not known. This study aimed to investigate the effects of various concentrations of capsaicinoids on kimchi fermentation. Five sets of kimchi samples were prepared using 0 mg/kg (control), 98.34 ± 5.34 mg/kg (mild), 243.47 ± 3.71 mg/kg (medium), 428.63 ± 30.78 mg/kg (hot), and 1,320.49 ± 28.27 mg/kg (extreme) capsaicinoid. The characteristics of each kimchi sample, including pH, acidity, organic acid, sugars, sugar alcohol, capsaicinoid content, and microbial community were periodically investigated during fermentation. Kimchi with red pepper powder shows significantly higher acidity than control kimchi, whereas pH values were the same. Organic acid in kimchi with red pepper powder was higher than in control kimchi, probably caused by higher lactic acid bacteria (LAB) counts in kimchi samples with red pepper powder. Our results show that addition of red pepper powder decreased Leuconostoc spp. counts in the bacterial community. In particular, Lactobacillus sakei and Leuconostoc gelidum counts increased and decreased, respectively, with increasing capsaicinoid content of red pepper powder added to kimchi. Overall, the results of this study indicate that physicochemical properties and LAB such as L. sakei and L. gelidum are influenced by capsaicinoid content. However, further studies are necessary to investigate the effects of the percentage of red pepper powder in kimchi on fermentation to provide practical guidelines for producing standardized kimchi.

Background: Sensory drivers of liking in foreign food markets are difficult to identify because the expression of perceived characteristics varies depending on cultural differences. We aimed to identify differences in the perception and expression of a Korean home meal replacement product (Kimchi stew) between 10 Korean trained panelists versus 50 eastern Chinese consumers (EC) and 54 northern Chinese consumers (NC) using descriptive analysis and rate-all-that-apply (RATA) tests. Regional differences between the EC and NC groups were also investigated., Results: Sensory representations of the six Kimchi stew samples were similar between the Korean trained and Chinese consumer panels. Use of simple sensory RATA terms was similar among the groups. However, EC, who have a daily diet with mild flavors, associated consumer terms with negative connotations, such as odd flavor and sharp, with burning sensation and seasoning, implying the influence of regional food cultures., Conclusion: RATA could elicit foreign consumers' sensory representations of an unfamiliar ethnic food that was comparable to that from descriptive analysis, assisting researchers in understanding target consumers' sensory perceptions in a more cost- and time-effective manner. The inclusion of consumer terms in a RATA list and its correlation with descriptive analysis by a native descriptive panel can help with the understanding of foreign consumers' verbal expressions. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.)

The effect of iodine present in 1.0% table salt in combination with the use of starter cultures in sauerkraut fermentations were investigated in order to determine whether iodine interferes with lactic acid bacteria responsible for the fermentation. The effect of iodine was tested in fermentations performed using selected starter cultures or without starters (spontaneous fermentation). Lactobacillus plantarum and Leuconostoc mesenteroides used as starters at levels of ca. 1 × 10 7  cfu ml -1 led to a quick establishment of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as predominant microorganisms, reaching 1 × 10 9  cfu ml -1 after 24 h decreasing the pH to below 4.0. In contrast, LAB counts in control fermentations without starters increased slower from 1 × 10 5  cfu ml -1 to 1 × 10 9  cfu ml -1 and a pH reduction below 4.0 was achieved only after 3 days fermentation. A metagenomic investigation showed a more diverse bacterial community in fermentations without starters, consisting of enterobacteria and pseudomonads in the first days of fermentation, and of LAB such as lactococci in the later stages. In fermentations with starters, lactobacilli predominated. Leuconostocs also occurred, but at much lower sequence abundance than lactobacilli, and thus were not able to predominate. Determination of iodine in the fermentation with starter bacteria and with iodized salt showed that the fermentation did not affect iodine concentration. The use of iodized salt did not statistically significantly influence microbial populations in the fermentation. Thus, there is no basis for the popular held belief that the use of iodized salt inhibits the growth of the bacteria important for the sauerkraut fermentation. A statistically near significant effect (p = 0.06), however, was noted for the effect of iodine on yeasts and mould populations in the fermentations performed without starter cultures. As sauerkraut is usually produced without starters, this should be further investigated., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Lacto-fermented sauerkraut contains a natural variety of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and has not previously been studied in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) patients. The present study investigated the effect of a daily lacto-fermented sauerkraut supplement in relation to IBS patients' gastrointestinal symptoms and gut microbiota composition. A randomized double-blinded intervention was conducted with 34 Norwegian IBS patients. The patients were consuming either pasteurized sauerkraut (PS; n = 15) or unpasteurized sauerkraut (UPS; n = 19) as a supplement to their daily diet for 6 weeks. The differences in change of symptoms were assessed using the questionnaire IBS-Symptom Severity Score (IBS-SSS) measured at the baseline, and at weeks 2, 4, 6 and 8 (follow-up). The gut microbiota composition was analysed using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing of faecal samples from the baseline and week 6. The mean change in IBS-SSS was -38.57 ± 17.08 PS vs. -56.99 ± 16.92 UPS and was significantly improved in both groups (P < 0.04), while the improvement in symptoms was not different between the intervention groups. The sauerkraut intervention (pasteurized or not) also led to significant gut microbiota compositional changes as determined by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing (un-weighted UniFrac: P = 0.001, weighted UniFrac: P = 0.001). Sauerkraut related LAB in feces (Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus brevis) were significantly more often present in the UPS-group. In conclusion lacto-fermented sauerkraut had an effect on IBS patients' symptoms and gut microbiota even though the study was underpowered. Our results indicate that the observed effect to a larger extent can be attributed to the potential prebiotics in lacto-fermented sauerkraut rather than the viable LAB. Future studies with greater statistical power are needed to clarify the possible effects of LAB from lacto-fermented sauerkraut in the treatment of IBS patients.

Pao cai is a spontaneously fermented cabbage where native bacteria may have an important influence on nitrite content during fermentation. In this research, we used metagenomic-based 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to analyze differences in bacterial composition of pao cai from Hohhot City (northern China) and Guiyang City (southern China). Alongside this, metagenome functional features from the 16S rRNA genes of the microbiome were predicted and correlated with the nitrite content of pao cai. Nitrite-reducing bacterial genera were identified including Lactobacillus (73.37%), Pediococcus (0.93%), Acinetobacter (0.74%), Leuconostoc (0.31%), Weissella (0.14%), Streptococcus (0.09%), Megamonas (0.08%), Enterococcus (0.07%), and Alistipes (0.06%). Lactobacillus was the predominant genus in both the northern and the southern pao cai samples and was significantly negatively correlated with nitrite content; it was more abundant in southern samples than northern samples. Based on determination of alpha and beta diversities of the microbiome in samples, differences in the microbiome of northern and southern pao cai were demonstrated that may influence nitrogen metabolism. This research suggests that 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing is an effective way to comprehensively study the microbes with potential nitrite formation or decomposition ability instead of investigating the individual bacterial genera., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This study investigated the inhibitory effects of kimchi bioactive compounds against endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-induced apoptosis in amyloid beta (Aβ)-injected mice. Mice received a single intracerebroventricular injection of Aβ 25-35 , except for the normal group. Mice were subjected to oral administration of 10 mg of capsaicin, 50 mg of 3-(4'-hydroxyl-3',5'-dimethoxyphenyl)propionic acid (HDMPPA), 50 mg of quercetin, 50 mg of ascorbic acid, or 200 mg of kimchi methanol extract (KME) per kilogram of body weight for 2 weeks ( n = 7 per group). In the in vitro blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability test, all bioactive compounds penetrated the BBB except ascorbic acid. The protein expression level of APP, BACE, and p-Tau elevated by Aβ injection was decreased by kimchi bioactive compounds ( P < 0.05). Quercetin, HDMPPA, and KME decreased oxidative stress, as indicated by ROS and TBARS levels ( P < 0.05). The protein expression level of ER stress markers GRP78, p-PERK, p-eIF2α, XBP1, and CHOP and the proapoptotic molecules Bax, p-JNK, and cleaved caspases-3 and -9 decreased ( P < 0.05). In contrast, the protein expression level of antiapoptotic molecules Bcl2 and cIAP increased ( P < 0.05). These results were supported by histological analysis.

The quality parameters of sauerkraut fermented using Lactobacillus paracasei in terms of its lactic acid bacteria count, texture, colour and biochemical properties were studied. As a starter culture L. paracasei grown in tofu whey was used for sauerkraut fermentation. The experiments were planned using central composite rotatable design of response surface methodology for input variables - culture volume (ml), fermentation time (days) and salt concentration (g/100 g). The linear and interactive effect of variables on responses was understood by statistically significant (p < 0.01) second-order models. Amongst all the input variables culture volume was found to have an overwhelming effect over all the responses. There was a significant (p < 0.01) increase in the lactic acid bacteria count of finished product; it was less hard but there was a departure in colour from the traditional product. The optimized condition for sauerkraut fermentation in terms of culture volume (ml), fermentation time (day) and salt concentration (g/100 g) was 30 ml, 28 days and 1 g/100 g, respectively. It was also observed that phenolics content was better in starter culture sauerkraut over the one traditionally prepared.

GC-MS datasets coupled with multivariate statistical analysis were used to investigate metabolic changes in Kimchi during fermentation and metabolic differences in Kimchi added with various amounts (0, 1.25, 2.5, and 5%) of salts. PCA score plot obtained after 1day of fermentation were clearly distinguishable by different salinity groups, implying that early fermentation speed varied according to Kimchi salinity. PLS-DA score plot from data obtained on the 50th day of fermentation also showed a clear separation, indicating metabolites of Kimchi were different according to salinity. Concentrations of lactic acid, acetic acid, and xylitol were the highest in Kimchi with 5% salinity while concentration of fumaric acid was the highest in Kimchi with 0% salinity. Rarefaction curves showed that numbers of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) in Kimchi with 5% salinity were higher than those in Kimchi with 0% salinity, implying that Kimchi with 5% salinity had more bacterial diversities. This study highlights the applicability of GC-MS based metabolomics for evaluating fermentative characteristics of Kimchi with different salinities., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Atherosclerosis is a progressive disease that is characterized by accumulation of lipids and fibrous elements in large arteries. Its etiology is involved with pathophysiological factors such as lipoprotein oxidation, inflammation, and dyslipidemia. Kimchi is a Korean fermented vegetable side dish made with vegetables and kimchi condiments. To date, numerous in vitro, in vivo, and human studies have cited the health benefits of kimchi. 3-(4'-Hydroxyl-3',5'-dimethoxyphenyl)propionic acid is one of the active compounds of kimchi, and its antioxidant and anti-atherosclerosclerotic effects have been reported. This review presents the laboratory and clinical evidence of the anti-atherosclerotic effects of kimchi based on its lipid-lowering, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities.

This study investigated the anticancer effects of kimchi prepared using the standard Baechu cabbage and Amtak Baechu cabbage; salting was achieved by either the dry salt treatment or brine solution. Four different kimchi samples were prepared for this study: (1) the standard Baechu cabbage and dry salt treatment method (SK-D); (2) the Amtak Baechu cabbage and dry salt treatment method (AK-D); (3) the standard Baechu cabbage and brine solution treatment method (SK-B); and (4) the Amtak Baechu cabbage and brine solution treatment method (AK-B). The anticancer effects of kimchi were evaluated using human pancreas cancer cells (Capan-2) and human liver cancer cells (HepG2). Both cancer cells showed a significant increase in cell growth inhibition when exposed to AK-D and AK-B compared with SK-D and SK-B (p < 0.05). At 2.0 mg/mL, the inhibition of Capan-2 cells was more than doubled after treatment with AK-B and AK-D compared with SK-B and SK-D, but was only 1.2 times in HepG2 cells. Assessment of mRNA and proteins related to apoptosis and cell cycle arrest revealed a significant increase of p21 levels after AK-D and AK-B treatment compared with SK-D and SK-B. In addition, the ongoing cytotoxic effects were significantly higher with AK-B compared with AK-D (p < 0.05). In Western blot analysis, the anticancer effects were more apparent in Capan-2 cells than in the HepG2 cells. Overall, these results indicate that kimchi made with Amtak Baechu cabbage and treated with brine solution (AK-B) had a superior anticancer potential against both types of cancer cells, with the effects being greater in pancreatic cancer cells compared with liver cancer cells.