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PURPOSE Infiltration techniques are used as an adjuvant to regional anesthesia. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of the superficial cervical plexus nerve block, as an alternative to local infiltration techniques; in the management of mandibular fractures and peri-mandibular space infections. METHODS A prospective randomized controlled trial was conducted on 24 patients having either mandibular fractures or peri-mandibular space infections; and were scheduled for surgery under regional anesthesia (eg, inferior alveolar nerve block, long buccal nerve block). The control group involved delivering a combination of regional anesthesia along with local infiltration. The experimental group received regional anesthesia with a superficial cervical plexus nerve block. The following parameters were studied: pain, onset and duration of anesthesia, time interval until first analgesic request, pulse rate and blood pressure [at different time intervals]. RESULTS Intergroup comparison was done using unpaired t-test. Intragroup comparison was done using repeated measures ANOVA (for >2 observations), followed by a post hoc test. The superficial cervical plexus nerve block group showed highly statistically significant (P < .01) improvement in terms of intra-operative pain at 30 minutes, duration of anesthesia, intraoperative anesthetic requirement, time interval until first analgesic request and intraoperative diastolic blood pressure at 10 minutes. CONCLUSION It can be concluded that the combination of a regional anesthesia technique with a superficial cervical plexus nerve block is an alternative and safe technique for patients undergoing surgery for mandible fractures and perimandibular space infections, with clear advantages over local infiltration. more...

Актуальність. Регіонарні методи знеболювання лапароскопії мають певні переваги перед наркозом. Карбоксиперитонеум при лапароскопії є загальноприйнятим, але при виконанні операції під високою спінальною анестезією (Th2–3) інтактною залишається діафрагма. Іритація діоксидом вуглецю діафрагмального нерва викликає потужний больовий плечолопатковий синдром, що потребує застосування загального знеболювання. Мета роботи: удосконалити анестезіологічне забезпечення лапароскопії шляхом поєднання регіонарних технік знеболювання — спінальної анестезії, правобічної поверхневої блокади шийного сплетення та термінальної анестезії поверхні діафрагми, застосовуючи динітрогеноксидперитонеум замість карбоксиперитонеуму. Матеріали та методи. Досліджено 300 пацієнтів (вік — 55,5 ± 3,3 року, маса тіла — 76,8 ± 2,4 кг, індекс маси тіла — 29,2 ± 0,9 кг/м2, I–III ASA). Спектр захворювань: жовчнокам’яна хвороба, грижі, кіста яєчника, варикоцеле, фіброміома матки, спайкова хвороба, гострий апендицит, абсцес/кіста печінки. Анестезіологічний супровід: спінальна анестезія гіпербаричним бупівакаїном (10–20 мг) у поєднанні з 0,06 мг бупренорфіну; для профілактики больового плечолопаткового синдрому — правобічна поверхнева блокада шийного сплетення бупівакаїном (0,125%, 10 мл), спреєве обприскування діафрагми лідокаїном (3%, 10 мл, через лапароскопічний порт), для створення пневмоперитонеуму — закис азоту. Пацієнти отримували до операції: перорально по 6 мг мелатоніну перед сном напередодні втручання й за 1 год до лапароскопії; перорально/внутрішньовенно 1 г парацетамолу; внутрішньом’язово 20 мг нефопаму; внутрішньовенно: 8 мг дексаметазону, 8 мг ондансетрону, 50 мг декскетопрофену. Після операції протягом однієї/двох діб: перорально по 1 г парацетамолу кожні 8 год, внутрішньовенно по 50 мг декскетопрофену кожні 8 год. Результати. Після премедикації хворі перебували в спокійному психоемоційному стані. У всіх пацієнтів у періопераційному періоді не спостерігалося м’язового тремтіння. Адекватність знеболювання визначалася хворими, які характеризували свій стан як «повна відсутність болю». Не було скарг на біль у плечі та лопатці. У 100 % випадків розвивалася седація різного ступеня. Механізм цього явища, імовірно, пов’язаний із резорбцією інтратекального бупренорфіну та інтраабдомінального закису азоту. При спонтанному диханні не було респіраторної дисфункції. Стабілізація гемодинаміки здійснювалася адреналіном та тартратом (0,019–0,038–0,057 мкг/кг/хв). Після закінчення операції пацієнтів відразу ж переводили до профільних відділень. В середньому хворі активізувалися через 2–3 год після трансферу із операційної. У перший післяопераційний день починали ентеральне харчування. Якість післяопераційного аналгетичного профілю характеризувалася позитивно. Необхідності в додатковому призначенні опіоїдів не виникало. Вираженість больового синдрому оцінювали за числовою рейтинговою шкалою болю від 0 до 10 балів через 3, 10, 24 і 48 год після операції. Динаміка ступеня післяопераційного болю була такою (M ± m): 0; 0,27 ± 0,02 (p = 0,157); 0,41 ± 0,07 (p = 0,0001); 0,45 ± 0,06 (p = 0,0001) відповідно. Період госпіталізації становив 31,0 ± 1,6 год. Висновки. Діоксид вуглецю порівняно із закисом азоту є більш токсичним газом при створенні пневмоперитонеуму для лапароскопії. Динітрогеноксидперитонеум разом із поверхневою блокадою шийного сплетення та термінальною анестезією діафрагми запобігав виникненню больового плечолопаткового синдрому. Заміна карбоксиперитонеуму на динітрогеноксидперитонеум дозволяла виконувати лапароскопічні операції під симультанною регіонарною анестезією, уникаючи загальних методів знеболювання з відомими побічними ефектами. more...

Ultrasound-guided intermediate cervical plexus blockade with perivascular infiltration of the carotid artery bifurcation perivacular block (PVB) is a reliable technique for regional anesthesia in carotid endarterectomy (CEA). We investigated the effect of the carotid bifurcation level (CBL) on PVB efficacy and safety in patients undergoing CEA. This prospective observational cohort study included 447 consecutive CEA patients who received PVB over a 6-y period. Vascular and neurologic puncture-related complications were recorded. The CBL was localized at the low level (C4 and C5 vertebra, low-level [LL] group) in 381 (85.2%) patients and at the high level (C2 and C3 vertebra, high-level [HL] group) in 66 (14.8%) patients. Local anesthetic supplementation by surgeons was necessary in 64 (14.3%) patients in the LL group and 38 (59.4%) patients in the HL group (p < 0.001) and was associated with a higher rate of central neurologic complications in the HL group (p = 0.031). Therefore, the efficacy of the PVB may be influenced by the CBL. more...

Bilateral laryngeal reinnervation can be a promising procedure for reanimation of laryngeal muscles, but currently not yet standardized. Besides patient conditions some intraoperative anatomical pitfalls need to be solved. Twelve human head and neck specimens (24 sides) have been studied using microdissection and histological serial sections of the nerves. The surgical anatomy of the dual reinnervation procedure according to JP Marie was investigated notably the branching pattern of the phrenic nerve (PN), the Ansa cervicalis (AC) and the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN). Despite variations of the AC, a prominent inferior common trunk for sterno-hyoid and sterno-thyroid muscles can be used in more than 90% of the specimens. If the AC is missing because of previous surgery, the tiny nerve of the thyro-hyoid muscle can be used preferred. The PN display a double roots pattern from C3 to C4 cervical plexus in 50% of the specimens. A single root pattern can be found and an end-to-lateral neurorraphy can be used. Intra-laryngeal nerves pattern of the RLN display tiny collaterals which cannot be selected for abduction–adduction activity. Direct implantation of the Y-shape great auricular nerve within the posterior crico-arytenoid muscles can be a reliable method leading to challenging mechanical and functional conditions. Several anatomical pitfalls, including intra-operative choices and variants of the donor nerves, but also the challenging intra-laryngeal dissection of the inferior laryngeal nerve need to be solved. A successful laryngeal reinnervation still needs further studies for a simplified procedure. more...

Background: Tinnitus is a serious health condition. It can be debilitating and as such negatively affects a patient's quality of life. People with tinnitus often experience distress, depression, anxiety, frequent mood swings, sleep disturbances, irritability, frustration, poor concentration, and possible suicidal thoughts or actions. Objective: The goal of this article is to introduce an acupuncture system, based on neurophysiology and termed Neuropuncture, as a possible effective treatment method for tinnitus accompanied with and/or secondary to hearing loss. The treatment protocol works by targeting the greater auricular nerve, trigeminal nerve, cervical plexus, and auditory cortex to neuromodulate, neurorehabilitate, and neuroregulate the nervous system and repair the nerve damage. Design: Three case studies are presented herein as examples. They are based on neurophysiologic mechanism of tinnitus and hearing loss, treatment principle, treatment methods, and subjective and clinically objective tests. Electroacupuncture protocols used various frequencies with microcurrent and millicurrent stimulation. Conclusions: Neuropuncture system is an effective treatment for patients with acute and chronic subjective tinnitus and hearing loss. Results showed reduction of tinnitus and partial restoration of hearing loss. Further research and possible large-scale trial studies are suggested. more...

Background Endoscopic thyroidectomy is widely performed as it does not result in neck scar. However, there is a paucity of reports pertaining to completely endoscopic lateral neck dissection (LND). In this study, we introduce our step-wise approach for performing endoscopic selective LND via the chest–breast approach. We refer to this approach as Qin’s seven steps. Methods The Qin’s seven steps are: (1) establishment of working space range; (2) dissection of lymph nodes between the SCM and the sternohyoid muscle (level IV) and exposure of omohyoid; (3) dissection of lymph nodes at level IV; (4) dissection of lymph nodes at level III; (5) dissection of lymph nodes at carotid triangle (level III); (6) exposure of accessory nerve and dissection of lymph nodes at level II a; (7) dissection of lymph nodes at level II b. We reviewed the clinical data of 35 patients with papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) who were operated using the Qin’s seven steps. Results All 35 patients successfully underwent LND; bilateral LND was performed in 5 patients. The mean tumor size was 1.8 ± 1.0 cm; seven patients had multiple lesions. The mean number of retrieved lymph nodes in level II, III and IV were 8.8 ± 5.6, 6.1 ± 4.0 and 9.3 ± 5.1, respectively. As for complications, there were 3 cases of accessory nerve injury and 1 case of hypoglossal nerve injury. Internal jugular vein injury, cervical plexus injury and lymphatic leakage occurred in 2, 7, and 1 patients, respectively. Conclusion The Qin’s seven steps for performing endoscopic selective LND could be safely used in PTC patients with lateral lymph node metastasis. Satisfactory results were achieved in the short-term follow-up period. We recommend the use of Qin’s seven steps for PTC patients who are not desirous of neck scar. more...

The ansa cervicalis (AC) is part of the cervical plexus and is formed by the ventral rami of spinal nerves C1-C3. It is usually formed by two roots that run parallel to each other and then form a loop anterior to the internal jugular vein. Herein, we report a rare case where the AC was found deep to the internal carotid artery and common carotid artery and had sympathetic contributions. more...

Objective/background The great auricular nerve (GAN) is a major sensory branch of the cervical plexus. Painful great auricular neuropathy causes pain circumscribed to the inferior preauricular region, the jaw angle, the ventral pinna, and the mastoid region. Methods We present a 46-year-old woman experiencing facial pain in the bilateral preauricular and infra-auricular region, constant, of abrasive quality without any other associated symptomatology that is triggered or aggravated with cephalic movements, cervical turn, mandibular movement, and palpation on the affected area. Results Symptomatic treatment with analgesics, anti-inflammatories, and neuropathic preventive medications was ineffective. However, nerve block anesthetic treatment resulted in complete pain remission. Conclusion Great auricular neuropathy is an uncommon cause of facial pain; our case report is the first bilateral occurrence reported to date. It should be suspected in patients with circumscribed shooting or lancinating paroxysmal pain in the territory of the GAN. It is characterized by the aggravation of pain with cervical movements and complete relief after anesthetic blockade. more...

Schwannoma, also known as neurilemmoma, is a benign neoplasm that originates from any nerves wrapped with a sheath made of Schwann cells. Schwannoma occurring in the head and neck region is not rare, but schwannomas of the anterior neck, especially ansa cervicalis, are extremely rare that only 7 cases have been reported to date worldwide. Although rare, it should be considered in differential diagnosis of anterior cervical mass and may be confused with other cervical and thyroid mass. We report a case of intramuscular schwannoma in the sternohyoid muscle. Preoperative diagnosis was established with an ultrasound-guided core needle biopsy. Although it was removed entirely without connection to any other nerves identified or any complication, clinically, the mass was thought to be derived from the nerve. To our knowledge, this is the first case of the intramuscular schwannoma occurring from ansa cervicalis reported in the literature. more...

The transverse cervical nerve arises from anterior rami of the second and third cervical spinal nerves via the cervical plexus. We present a case of a left duplicated transverse cervical nerve with a duplicated external jugular vein in a 72-year-old female cadver. The transverse cervical nerve bifurcated into two branches, i.e., superficial and deep branches, lateral to the sternocleidomastoid muscle. The superficial branch ran lateral to the duplicated external jugular vein and gave a cutaneous branch to the area below the great auricular nerve and cutaneous branches to the skin of the neck. The deep branch ran medial to the duplicated external jugular vein, joined the anterior branch of the superficial transverse cervical nerve and cervical branch of the facial nerve, and terminated into the skin. This case adds to the growing data on individual variability that should be considered when operating on the anterolateral neck. more...

PURPOSE: To assess the anatomy of the spinal accessory nerve (SAN), its variations and the landmark of level II B lymph nodes. METHODS: Prospective study included 50 patients from 2016 to 2018.The predictor variables were drawn from demographic details of the patients; SAN was analyzed intraoperatively with the parameters like the nerve relationship with the IJV, SCM muscle, contributions of cervical plexus and a new parameter of length from midpoint of clavicle to entry of nerve in the trapezius muscle in the lower part of neck which was studied for the first time and forms the prime identification landmark to preserve the nerve. Outcome variables were details of anatomic variations and branches and utility of these landmarks in prevention of nerve injury. RESULTS: Sample consisted of 38 (76%) male and 12 (24%) female patients. The SAN with respect to the IJV was dorsal in 42% patients and ventral in 58%. In 54% cases, SAN gave a branch to the SCM without penetrating the muscle and in 46% gave a branch to the SCM penetrating the muscle. SAN received contributions from the C2 root of the cervical plexus in 68%, both C2 and C3 in 54% and C3 in 50% cases. Mean length from measurements recorded between mid-line of clavicle to insertion of SAN to trapezius muscle and entry of SAN into trapezius muscle was 59 mm with variations recorded in gender and short/long neck. CONCLUSION: The result of this study suggests that parameters used are simple clinical tools for identification of the SAN and its variations resulting in no nerve injury. It is prudent for the surgeon to have knowledge of sound anatomical landmarks with the variations in the SAN course which avoids morbidity and improves the quality of life. more...

Background Major neck surgery is done typically under general anesthesia (GA). The neural blocks of the neck include blocking of the cervical plexus, superior laryngeal nerve, trans-laryngeal, block of the glossopharyngeal nerve, and local anesthetic infiltration. In patients with a high risk of GA, including those with pulmonary dysfunction, and prior myocardial ischemia or infarction, regional anesthesia is mainly indicated. Case presentation We record a case of a comorbid geriatric patient with dysphonia and left glottic mass that was diagnosed as squamous cell papilloma by transoral biopsy using curved biopsy forceps under local spray anesthesia, and after 6 months, this patient developed stridor for which tracheostomy, laryngofissure, and left cordectomy were then performed solely under neck blocks. Surgery was performed while the patient remained pain-free and stable without any morbidity throughout the operation. Conclusions In high-risk patients and low-resource health systems, regional anesthesia in neck surgery can be a reasonable and cheap alternate to general anesthetics. more...

Closed brachial plexus lesions (BPLs) are generally associated with a traumatic mechanism of forced traction between the neck and the shoulder-arm complex. For brachial plexus reconstruction different techniques have been proposed with donor motor nerves like intercostal nerves, or the ipsilateral cervical plexus, the phrenic nerve, the contralateral C7 root, and many others. Despite all these surgical possibilities, the overall recovery is generally poor and not satisfactory. The principal drawback is linked to the loss of upper limb proprioception, in a way that dramatically influences even a good motor recovery, so in complete BPLs the sensory loss still represents a debilitating problem. In this anatomical feasibility study, the possibility to transfer the peroneal component of the sciatic nerve as a donor for complete BPLs has been evaluated. This technique would conceptually bring an important motor and sensory contribution to the upper limb using pure motor and sensory branches of the sciatic nerve. Performing immediate tendon transfer for foot drop palsy could significantly decrease the morbidity of the surgical procedure. more...

Background Greater occipital nerve blocks (GONB) are used increasingly to treat acute migraine. Objective We conducted a randomized controlled trial to determine whether GONB was as effective as intravenous metoclopramide for migraine. Methods This was a double-dummy, double-blind, parallel-arm, non-inferiority study conducted in 2 emergency departments (EDs). Patients with migraine of moderate or severe intensity were randomized to receive bilateral GONB with each side administered 3 mL of bupivacaine 0.5% or metoclopramide 10 mg IV, the putative standard of care. The primary outcome was improvement in pain on a 0-10 scale between time 0 and 1 hour later. To reject the null hypothesis that metoclopramide would be more efficacious in relieving pain, we required that the lower limit of the 95% CI for the difference in pain improvement between those randomized to GONB vs those randomized to metoclopramide be >-1.3, a validated minimum clinically important difference. Secondary outcomes included sustained headache relief, defined as achieving and maintaining for 48 hours a headache level of mild or none without the use of additional analgesic medication, and the use of rescue medication in the ED. Results Over a 2.5-year study period, 1358 patients were screened for participation and 99 were randomized, 51 to GONB and 48 to metoclopramide. All of these patients were included in the primary analysis. Patients who received the GONB reported mean improvement of 5.0 (95% CI: 4.1, 5.8) while those who received metoclopramide reported a larger mean improvement of 6.1 (95% CI: 5.2, 6.9). The 95% CI for the between group difference of -1.1 was -2.3, 0.1. Sustained headache relief was reported by 11/51 (22%) GONB and 18/47 (38%) metoclopramide patients (95% CI for rounded difference of 17%: -1, 35%). Of the 51 GONB patients, 17 (33%) required rescue medication in the ED vs 8/48 (17%) metoclopramide patients (95% CI for rounded difference of 17%: 0, 33%). An adverse event was reported by 16/51 (31%) GONB patients and 18/48 (38%) metoclopramide patients (95% CI for (rounded) difference of 6%: -13, 25%). Conclusion GONB with bupivacaine was not as efficacious as IV metoclopramide for the first-line treatment of migraine in the ED. more...

INTRODUCTION In order to avoid large neck scar caused by conventional lateral neck dissection. We have explored and introduced endoscopic lateral neck dissection (IIA, IIB, III, and IV) using a breast approach. Now, we summarized and shared the outcomes of the first 24 cases. MATERIALS AND METHODS All the patients were treated in our institute from January 2017 to May 2018, and followed-up for more than 1 year. The details of patients and this technique have been summarized and analyzed retrospectively. RESULTS A series of first 24 cases were successfully managed with this technique, and no cases were converted to an open approach. Among these 24 patients, levels III + IV dissection had been performed in 6 patients and levels II+III+IV dissection had been performed in 18 patients. The mean age, body mass index, and sex were 39.3±10.5 years old, 24.1±3.5, and 2 male/22 female, respectively. The average operative time of total operation and lateral neck dissection was 238.8±37.2 minutes and 128.8±21.1 minutes, respectively. The mean dissected lateral lymph nodes were 5.9±2.2 (level II) in 18 cases and 15.9±3.9 (levels III+IV) in 24 cases. In addition, with no severe complications to date, such as asphyxia, main nerves injury (cervical plexus, vagus nerve, etc.), and permanent hypoparathyroidism, nor permanent recurrent laryngeal nerve injury, and so on. However, unexpectedly, had some mild and common complications like transient hypocalcemia in 4 cases (16.67%), transient horse 1 case (4.2%), controllable lymphatic leakage in 2 cases (8.3%), and controllable jugular vein injury in 2 cases (8.3%). One year after the operation, 1 case found lung metastasis but no local recurrence. In other 23 patients, no recurrence/metastasis and the average of serum thyroglobulin is 3.2±3.8 ng/mL. CONCLUSIONS This technique can yield adequate oncological dissection for selected patients. Endoscopic thyroidectomy along with lateral neck dissection using a breast approach may provide an option for selected patients who favor avoiding a visible neck incision. more...

Background Migraine surgery is an increasingly popular treatment option for migraine patients. The lesser occipital nerve is a common trigger point for headache abnormalities, but there is a paucity of research regarding the lesser occipital nerve and its intimate association with the spinal accessory nerve. Methods Six cadaver necks were dissected. The lesser occipital, great auricular, and spinal accessory nerves were identified and systematically measured and recorded. These landmarks included the longitudinal axis (vertical line drawn in the posterior), the horizontal axis (defined as a line between the most anterosuperior points of the external auditory canals) and the earlobe. Mean distances and standard deviations were calculated to delineate the relationship between the spinal accessory, lesser occipital, and great auricular nerves. Results The point of emergence of the spinal accessory nerve was determined to be 7.17 ± 1.15 cm lateral to the y axis and 7.77 ± 1.10 caudal to the x axis. The lesser occipital nerve emerges 7.5 ± 1.31 cm lateral to the y axis and 8.47 ± 1.11 cm caudal to the x axis. The great auricular nerve emerges 8.33 ± 1.31 cm lateral to the y axis and 9.4 ±1.07 cm caudal to the x axis. The decussation of the spinal accessory and the lesser occipital nerves was found to be 7.70 ± 1.16 cm caudal to the x axis and 7.17 ± 1.15 lateral to the y axis. Conclusion Understanding the close relationship between the lesser occipital nerve and spinal accessory nerve in the posterior, lateral neck area is crucial for a safer approach to occipital migraine headaches, occipital neuralgia, and new daily persistent headaches and other reconstructive or cosmetic operations. more...

The ansa cervicalis is an important nerve of the cervical plexus. Knowledge of its anatomy can prevent patient complications.

The cervical plexus is formed by the ventral rami of the C1–C4 spinal nerves. MR neurography is an excellent tool for identifying the ventral rami, the communicating loops, and the superficial and deep branches of the cervical plexus. A combination of high-resolution two- and three-dimensional (2D and 3D) sequences and functional techniques, preferably on 3.0T scanners, allows those thin neck nerves to be followed. more...

The lesser occipital nerve is a branch of the cervical plexus. Knowledge of its anatomy can improve patient care.

In this chapter, we address the microanatomy of the structures that are enclosed within the cervical spine that give rise to the anterior branches of the cervical spinal nerves. The sequential images allow visualization of all the structures and their microscopic details from the spinal cord at C1–C4 levels. more...

The cervical plexus and its branches are situated in the lateral aspect of the neck between the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. The following images depict a step-by-step dissection of the cervical plexus and its branches. more...

The connections between the cervical plexus and sympathetic trunk are important in understanding the details of the cervical plexus. Such knowledge can aid in preventing patient complications.

The transverse cervical nerve arises from the cervical plexus and branches out to smaller ending nerves to penetrate the anterior portion of the neck. The pathway of this nerve and its branches, and the anatomical variants, will be discussed. Regarding clinical significance, surgical procedures in the submandibular region often entail postoperative side effects owing to an injury to the transverse cervical nerve or its branches. This has been shown in many papers discussing carotid endarterectomy. Those papers will be reviewed, and other procedures that can involve injury to this nerve will be discussed. more...

An important branch of cervical plexus arising principally off the ventral ramus of C4, also receiving contributions from C3 and C5, is the phrenic nerve. Knowledge of its anatomy can prevent patient complications. more...

The supraclavicular nerve is a sensory branch of the cervical plexus, originating from C3 and C4 spinal nerves. Knowledge of its detailed anatomy can prevent patient complications.

Introduction: The 11th cranial nerve, the spinal accessory nerve, has a complex anatomy and shares a unique relationship with the cervical plexus. Herein, we review the morphology, embryology, surgical anatomy, and clinical manifestations of the spinal accessory nerve. Included in this review, we mention variant anatomy, molecular development, histology, and imaging of the spinal accessory nerve. Conclusions: The spinal accessory nerve continues to be a topic of much discussion regarding its exact function. Currently, we continue to learn and have much to learn about this lower cranial nerve. more...

The images in this chapter are serial axial slices of the cervical region from the base of the posterior cranial fossa to the C5 vertebral body. The slices are 3 mm in thickness and are those of a 75-year-old at death male of a voluntary body donor. more...

Although not as often encountered as pathologies of the brachial and lumbosacral plexuses, surgery involving the cervical plexus does occur. Such procedures include nerve harvest for grafting and neurotization procedures. This chapter discusses the surgical implications of the cervical plexus. more...

In this collection of chapters, we seek to highlight the surgical anatomy of the cervical plexus and all of its branches with the hopes that a better understanding of their morphology will lead to better patient outcomes in regard to diagnoses and treatments. more...

Variations of the cervical plexus are not uncommon. Therefore, a detailed knowledge of such variants can prevent patient complications.

Background Peripheral nerve decompression surgery can effectively address headache pain caused by compression of peripheral nerves of the head and neck. Despite decompression of known trigger sites, there are a subset of patients with trigger sites centered over the postauricular area coursing along the sulcus. The authors hypothesize that these patients experience primary or residual pain caused by compression of the great auricular nerve. Methods Anatomical dissections were carried out on 16 formalin-fixed cadaveric heads (eight female and eight male cadavers) ranging in age from 78 to 89 years. The course of the great auricular nerve was identified in the superficial cervical fascia, at the borders to the sternocleidomastoid muscle and the platysma, and within the parotid gland. Possible points of compression along fascia, muscle, and parotid gland were identified. Ultrasound technology was used to confirm these anatomical findings in a living volunteer. Results The authors' findings demonstrate that the possible points of compression for the great auricular nerve are at Erb's point (point 1), at the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle in the dense connective tissue before entry into the parotid gland (point 2), and within its intraparotid course (point 3). The mean topographic measurements were as follows: Erb's point to the mastoid process at 7.32 cm on the right and 7.35 cm on the left, Erb's point to the angle of the mandible at 6.04 cm on the right and 5.89 cm on the left, and the posterior aspect of the sternocleidomastoid muscle to the mastoid process at 3.88 cm on the right and 4.43 cm on the left. All three possible points of compression could be identified using ultrasound. Conclusions This study identified three possible points of compression of the great auricular nerve that could be decompressed with peripheral nerve decompression surgery: Erb's point (point 1), at the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle (point 2), and within its intraparotid course (point 3). These findings were confirmed on ultrasound in a living volunteer. more...

This report intends to summarize the underlying pathophysiology, relevant symptoms, appropriate diagnostic workup, necessary imaging, and medical and surgical treatments of occipital neuralgia (ON). This was done through a comprehensive literature review of peer-reviewed literature throughout the most relevant databases. The current understanding of ON is that it causes neuropathic pain in the distribution of the greater occipital nerve, the lesser occipital nerve, the third occipital nerve or a combination of the 3. It is currently a subset of headaches although there is some debate if ON should be its own condition. Occipital neuralgia causes chronic, sharp, stabbing pain in the upper neck, back of the head, and behind the ears that can radiate to the front of the head. Diagnosis is typically clinical and patients present with intermittent, painful episodes associated with the occipital region and the nerves described above. Most cases are unilateral pain, however bilateral pain can be present and the pain can radiate to the frontal region and face. Physical examination is the first step in management of this disease and patients may demonstrate tenderness over the greater occipital and lesser occipital nerves. Anesthetics like 1% to 2% lidocaine or 0.25% to 0.5% bupivacaine can be used to block these nerves and anti-inflammatory drugs like corticosteroids can be used in combination to prevent compressive symptoms. Other treatments like botulinum toxin and radiofrequency ablation have shown promise and require more research. Surgical decompression through resection of the obliquus capitis inferior is the definitive treatment however there are significant risks associated with this procedure. more...

Background Cervical plexus (CP) tumours are difficult to diagnose because of atypical symptoms. This study aimed to summarize the features of a normal CP and CP tumours observed on high-frequency ultrasonography. Methods The ultrasound data of 11 CP tumour patients and 22 normal volunteers were collected. All 11 patients underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and 4 patients also underwent computed tomography (CT). The imaging data were compared with surgery and pathology data. Results The C7 vertebra and bifurcation of the carotid common artery (CCA) were useful anatomic markers for identifying the CP. In contrast to the C1 nerve (22.7%), the C2-4 nerves were well displayed and thinner than the brachial plexus (P P Conclusions The diagnosis of CP neuropathy is accurate and reliable by high-frequency ultrasound, and the C7 vertebra and bifurcation of the CCA are useful anatomic markers in CP ultrasonography. more...

In the current study, we display a rare association of an aberrant innervation of the sternocleidomastoid muscle by the ansa cervicalis (AC) with a tortuous common carotid artery (TCCA). In specific, in a male cadaver we observed on the right side of the cervical region, a nerval branch of remarkable size originating from the most distal part of the AC’s superior root and after piercing the superior belly of the omohyoid muscle innervated the distal portion of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Furthermore, we noticed a tortuous course of the initial part of the right common carotid artery. We discuss the surgical significance of the awareness of AC’s variations during neurotisation of the recurrent laryngeal nerve in cases of its damage, as well as the importance of aberrant innervation of the sternocleidomastoid muscle by AC for the preservation of muscle’s functionality after accessory nerve’s damage. Furthermore, we highlight the fact, that the knowledge of the relatively uncommon variant, such as TCCA is crucial for the physician in order to proceed more effectively in differential diagnosis of a palpable mass of the anterior cervical region or deal with symptoms such as dyspnea, dysphagia or symptoms of cerebrovascular insufficiency. more...

Bibliometric analysis provides measures of the quality and quantity of researches undertaken by departments/individuals and indicates countries’ contribution toward scientific development. The aim of this bibliometric study is to analyze scientific publications on cervical plexus blocks. Institute for Scientific Information (ISI)/Web of Knowledge Science was used for the analysis. A retrospective search was performed using the terms “cervical plexus block (CPB),” “superficial-CPB,” “intermediate-CPB,” “deep-CPB,” “regional anesthesia in CPB,” and “loco-regional anesthesia in CPB”. We further analyzed these results by the “analyze” function of the software in terms of number of papers from each country, type of documentation, number of publications per year, name of journals, and authors. The number of citations to published works was also calculated by using the citation function of the same software. Two hundred sixty papers were found related to cervical plexus block. The biggest contribution was from the USA (14.61%). The acceleration of the publications began in 2004. But there were three sharp declines in 2007, 2014, and 2016, respectively, after the acceleration in publications. CPBs were most frequently employed for carotid endarterectomy. Other indications for CPB application were otoplasty, thyroid, and parathyroid surgery (for analgesia and/or anesthesia) and recently perioperative analgesia during cervical spine surgery; but the number of publications on these topics is very limited. more...

Objective Uses of simple analgesics were found insufficient to manage pain after thyroid surgery. We hypothesized that using bilateral superficial cervical plexus block (BSCPB) might influence the pattern of immediate postoperative pain and analgesic consumption. The general objective of the study was to assess the analgesic efficacy of bilateral superficial plexus block for thyroid surgery under general anesthesia. Results A total of 74 willing patients involved. Half of them had received BSCPB with 10 ml of 0.25% bupivacaine just before induction and the remaining half did not. Postoperatively, patients were assessed at immediate, 2nd, 6th, 12th and 24th h. At all endpoints, NRS-11 scores for pain were significantly lower in the block group. The time to first analgesic requirement was significantly longer 132.3 ± 71.5 min vs 71.4 ± 60.0 min, p = 0.009. Opioid and total analgesic consumption were reduced by BSCPB in the first 24 postoperative hours. There was low but non-significant rate of PONV in the block group. No clinically important adverse event was noted related to BSCPB. Trial registration The study was registered in Pan African Clinical Trial Registry on 13/01/2020 and the registration number is PACTR202001579588451. Retrospectively registered. more...

Schwannomas are slow-growing, encapsulated, benign tumors that can originate from any nerve covered with a sheath of Schwann cells. These tumors can originate from the cranial, peripheral, or autonomic nerves; about 25%–45% of schwannomas originate in the head-and-neck region, of which about 10% originate from either the vagal or sympathetic nervous system. They are rare tumors and are often asymptomatic, but depending on the location, they may produce secondary symptoms, such as swelling in the neck, dysphagia, and hoarseness of voice. The preoperative diagnosis of schwannomas is usually difficult because they often do not present with associated neurological deficits and can be misdiagnosed as other pathological conditions. Schwannomas should, therefore, be considered in the differential diagnosis of unilateral and slow-growing masses in the head and neck. The preferred modality for the treatment of schwannomas is surgical excision, and the recurrence of the tumor after complete resection is very rare. Vagal nerve injury is a common complication associated with surgical excision despite preserving nerve integrity. Therefore, the patients should be counseled preoperatively regarding the risk of developing neurological deficits. We searched in PubMed for articles related to schwannomas of the head and neck region, and extracted information regarding the symptoms, workup, management, and postoperative outcomes. We also discuss two cases, one with vagus nerve schwannoma and the other with supraclavicular cervical plexus schwannoma. more...

This is a case report of a 64-year-old male with cancer with an unknown primary and bilateral cervical lymph node metastases. Twelve months after chemo-, radio-, immunotherapy, and radical neck dissection, he presented with recurrent cervical metastases. The patient underwent radical revision neck dissection including the deep neck muscles of the cervical plexus and reconstruction with a free anterolateral thigh flap. During tumor resection, parts of the thoracic duct were removed which resulted in a large lymph leak. This was addressed by creating a lymphovenous anastomosis to a branch of the subclavian vein. The flow of lymph was reinstated, and no leak has been observed up to a recent 6-month follow-up. more...

Objectives/hypothesis This study explored the feasibility and efficiency of main branch of ansa cervicalis nerve (ACN)-to-recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) anastomosis for management of paroxysmal laryngospasm due to unilateral vocal cord paralysis (UVCP). Methods Thirteen patients who underwent main branch of ACN-to-RLN anastomosis for management of paroxysmal laryngospasm due to UVCP were enrolled in the present study. Multidimensional assessments, including videostroboscopy, voice assessment, and laryngeal electromyography (LEMG), were performed preoperatively and postoperatively. Results This series was limited to UVCP with iatrogenic causes, including thyroidectomy, cervical spine surgery, and thoracic surgery. After main branch of ACN-to-RLN anastomosis, all cases showed significant airway improvement, and laryngospasm was completely abolished in 92.3% (12 of 13) of cases. Videostroboscopy showed that the bulging and paradoxical adduction of the affected vocal cord during a sniff were abolished immediately after operation, and there was no significant difference in vocal fold position or glottal closure before versus after the operation. LEMG showed that the postoperative recruitment and amplitude of voluntary motor unit potential in the affected thyroarytenoid muscle during a sniff were significantly decreased compared to preoperative values, and postoperative recruitment showed significant improvement during phonation compared to that preoperatively. Voice assessment showed that there were no significant differences in overall grade, roughness, breathiness, jitter (local), shimmer (local), noise-to-harmonics ratio, or maximum phonation time after the operation compared to the preoperative values. Conclusions Main branch of ACN-to-RLN anastomosis could have long-lasting efficacy in the management of paroxysmal laryngospasm due to UVCP, with no apparent compromise of voice quality. Level of evidence 4 Laryngoscope, 130:2412-2419, 2020. more...

Background/objective The great auricular nerve (GAN) arises from C2-C3 and provides innervation over the skin in the pre-auricular region, jaw angle, posteroinferior pinna, and mastoid. Although damage to the GAN has been reported following trauma or procedures nearby this nerve course, neuralgia of this nerve is uncommon with knowledge based on a handful of case reports in literature. The objective of this study is to describe the presentation, treatment, and outcome of 13 cases of GAN neuralgia. Methods Case series. Retrospecive review of charts from 1994 to 2018 with diagnoses: "auricular neuralgia," "auricular neuritis," or "auricular neuropathy." We included subjects with neuralgic pain within the distribution of the GAN, and excluded patients with atypical facial pain, GAN neuropathy, or unclear etiology. Results Of 79 charts, 13 patients met criteria (age at onset 11-59; 11 women, 2 men). Pain was most often described as paroxysmal stabbing provoked by: turning the head (n = 7), touching the neck (n = 5), neck position during sleep (n = 2), jaw movement (n = 2), and other (n = 2). Seven patients received GAN blocks: all noted dramatic improvement in pain, including 3 who continued to receive serial blocks at our institution successfully for the next 2 to 5 years. Two patients successfully transitioned from GAN blocks to GAN stimulators. One patient with GAN lymphoma had resolution of pain following GAN resection. Conclusion GAN neuralgia should be considered in the differential for periauricular pain. GAN blocks or stimulators may be helpful for pain management. more...

BACKGROUND Few treatment options exist for chronic migraine headaches, with peripheral nerve blocks having long been used to reduce the frequency and severity of migraines. Although the therapeutic effects have been observed in clinical practice, the efficacy has never been fully studied. In the past decade, however, several randomized controlled clinical trials have been conducted to assess the efficacy of greater occipital nerve block in the treatment of chronic migraine headaches. METHODS A systematic review of the literature was performed in the citation databases PubMed, Embase, MEDLINE, and the Cochrane Library. The initial search of databases yielded 259 citations, of which 33 were selected as candidates for full-text review. Of these, nine studies were selected for inclusion in this meta-analysis. RESULTS Studies were analyzed that reported mean number of headache days per month in both intervention and control groups. A total of 417 patients were studied, with a pooled mean difference of -3.6 headache days (95 percent CI, -1.39 to -5.81 days). This demonstrates that greater occipital nerve block intervention significantly reduced the frequency of migraine headaches compared with controls (p < 0.00001). Pooled mean difference in pain scores of -2.2 (95 percent CI, -1.56 to -2.84) also demonstrated a significant decrease in headache severity compared with controls (p < 0.0121). CONCLUSIONS Greater occipital nerve blocking should be recommended for use in migraine patients, particularly those that may require future surgical intervention. The block may act as an important stepping stone for patients experiencing migraine headache because of its usefulness for potentially assessing surgical candidates for nerve decompression. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Therapeutic, II. more...

Background:The ansa cervicalis is useful for cranial nerve repair, and may be harvested without apparent morbidity. Herein we report an unusual and surgically relevant anatomic variant of the ansa cervicalis.Methods:An adult male with left parotid adenoid cystic carcinoma underwent parotidectomy with upper-division facial nerve resection and planned interposition repair using the ansa cervicalis. The ipsilateral hypoglossal nerve was identified, together with a descending branch producing strap muscle contraction when stimulated. This presumed descendens hypoglossi was unusually large in caliber; further dissection revealed continuity with the vagus nerve.Results:Ansa cervicalis harvest was aborted when its separation from vagus nerve epineurium was not possible. The sural nerve was alternatively harvested. The patient awoke with left vocal fold palsy, which completely resolved within 3 months.Conclusion:Anatomic variants of the ansa cervicalis exist that may preclude graft harvest and place the vagus nerve at risk of inadvertent injury. more...

Periauricular sensory deficit occurs frequently after parotidectomy even in cases with preservation of the greater auricular nerve (GAN). This study was performed to evaluate the effects of antiadhesive agent in functional recovery of the GAN after parotidectomy. Ninety-eight patients undergoing partial parotidectomy for benign parotid tumors were prospectively enrolled in this multicenter, double-blind randomized controlled study and randomly assigned to either the study or control group. Antiadhesive agent was applied in the study group. The results of sensory tests (tactile, heat, and cold sensitivity) and a questionnaire on quality of life (QoL) were acquired at postoperative 1, 8, and 24 weeks after surgery. Clinical parameters, and the results of the sensory tests and the questionnaire, were compared between the two groups. A total of 80 patients were finally enrolled. On sensory evaluation, tactile sensation and warm sensation in the ear lobule, and warm sensation in the mastoid area, showed significant improvement at 24 weeks postoperatively in the study group. There were no significant differences between the two groups on any questions in the QoL questionnaire, at any follow-up time point. Antiadhesive agents have some positive effects on functional recovery of the GAN after parotidectomy. Therefore, applying antiadhesive agents after parotidectomy can reduce discomfort in patients. more...

Ansa-to-recurrent laryngeal nerve (ANSA-RLN) reinnervation procedures are now often first-line treatments for some children with unilateral vocal fold immobility. Although many describe that children with prolonged denervation and true vocal fold atrophy should not undergo this procedure, there has been no gold-standard means of identifying true denervation. Here, we describe a novel technique using evoked vagal electromyography to predict degree of chronic nerve injury prior to recurrent laryngeal nerve reinnervation in children. This is a simple, readily available technique that may play an important role in predicting likelihood of success with pediatric ANSA-RLN reinnervation. Laryngoscope, 130:747-751, 2020. more...

Objective: The incidence of chronic neuropathic pain following neck dissections is approximately 40%. Standard drug therapy in these patients include pharmacologic treatments due to the neuropathic pain (gabapentinoids, tricyclic antidepressants…). In this case, standard options were limited. The addition of ultrasound guidance to invasive pain management techniques has enabled us to successfully treat pathologies in which previous treatments options had been limited. Pulsed radiofrequency (PRF) ablation permits treatment over nerve structures that, due to either their morphological or functional characteristics, could not be approached using the conventional variant. Case report: A 45-year-old man with severe postoperative pain after undergoing partial glossectomy and functional neck dissection for squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue. The patient had been treated pharmacologically for several years with minimal results, baseline VAS of 90. After a successful superficial cervical plexus block under ultrasound guidance, he underwent PRF for a possible long-lasting effect. VAS post PRF improved in subsequent visits: VAS at 1 month was 0; at 3 months was 10 and at 6 months was 60. Conclusion: Postoperative changes to include alterations in nerve structures are a frequent source of chronic pain. The incidence of this type of pain in the cervical region is quite variable. Noninvasive treatment options are limited and oftentimes ineffective. Due to its location, superficial cervical plexus is an anatomical site with the potential risk of undergoing structural alterations (fibrosis, radiotherapy-associated retraction phenomena or neuroma formation). Interventional treatments performed under ultrasound guidance allow the dynamic application of therapies such as radiofrequency ablation. PRF could potentially cause an additive effect between neuromodulation and the hydrodissection caused by the infiltration of substances within a fibrotic area. more...

Otalgia can be broadly categorized into primary otologic causes and secondary nonotologic causes. Isolated otalgia in the absence of hearing loss, otorrhea, or abnormal otoscopic findings is typically secondary to referred pain from nonotologic causes, as the sensory nerve supply to the ear arises from 4 cranial nerves and the cervical plexus. The most common causes of primary otalgia are acute otitis media and otitis externa, whereas the most common causes of secondary otalgia are temporomandibular joint disorders and dental pathology. Persistent unilateral ear pain and other alarm symptoms warrant further evaluation for possible neoplasm. more...

This review examines the use of novel US-guided nerve blocks in clinical practice. Erector spinae block is a regional anesthesia technique doing by injecting a local anesthetic among the erector spinae muscle group and transverse processes. The phrenic nerve is a branch of the cervical plexus, arising from the anterior rami of cervical nerves C3, C4, and C5. The quadratus lumborum muscle is located along the posterior abdominal wall. It originates from the transverse process of the L5 vertebral body, the iliolumbar ligament, and the iliac crest. US-guided peripheral nerve procedures have a considerable scope of use, including treating headaches and hiccups to abdominal surgical pain, cesarean sections, musculoskeletal pathologies. These nerve blocks have been an effective addition to clinical anesthesia practice. The use of peripheral nerve blocks has improved postoperative pain, lessened the use of opioids and their potential side effects, and decreased the incidence of sleep disturbance in patients. More research should be done to further delineate the potential benefits of these blocks. more...