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Technologies-based production practices are critical for agricultural growth and sustainable development in low-income countries like Nepal. In the last few years, tunnel house has been increasingly promoted as tools to enhance smallholder farmers’ livelihood and tackle climate adversaries. However, little is known about what factor determines its adoption and whether it helps smallholders adapt to climate change and experience better livelihood. We address these gaps using the cross-sectional survey data collected from 62 adopters and 92 non-adopters in three municipalities of Bagmati Province. We employed descriptive analysis and probit model and found out that age, farm size, and ethnicity strongly influence the technology adoption amongst smallholder farmers. Additionally, treatment model and ordinary least square (OLS) regression were utilized to examine tunnel technology’s effect. Our study shows that tunnel significantly increases production by 32 tons/year/hectare and protects crops from climate change effects such as heavy rainfall and temperature change. Likewise, tunnel technology increases the net crop income by $1700/year/hectare. However, the economic benefit is not substantial compared to technology’s adoption cost as adopters incur enormous costs of $12,000/year/hectare on equipment, labor and resources. These results suggest policymakers should concentrate on reducing the technology’s cost, which could be achieved through subsidies, financial support, or price control mechanisms. Ensuring technology’s affordability can contribute to smallholder farmers’ sustainable livelihood in Nepal and countries with similar contexts.

Organic farming is increasingly popular among the farmers of Kathmandu valley. However, the organic growers have been facing issues in production, organic certification, and product marketing. To date, little is known about the challenges faced by the organic growers in Kathmandu valley. This study aimed to explore the status of organic farming, attitudes of farmers towards organic farming, their suggestions for improvement, and strengthening the value chain of organic products. Face-to-face interviews were conducted at Agriculture Knowledge Centre, Lalitpur, Nepal during December 2019 with 37 organic growers directly or indirectly involved in organic farming. The results showed that organic growers face challenges in marketing and institutional recognition. Challenges in product certification and marketing were reported by 45.95% of the total interviewed organic growers while they are following organic practices (transitional organic). Our study suggested that reducing the cost of production through easy access to organic inputs like organic seeds, fertilizers, and biopesticides are highly desired by the growers. Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) or group certification along with collective marketing could be the policy implications to address the issues. Organic farming in Kathmandu valley is limited to a niche market, however, due to increasing consumer demand for safe, fresh, and local food the popularity of organic products is increasing to other regions within the country.

As the world's population continues to increase, other methods of production are being sought after that can help conserve water and save land especially in urban communities. Vertical gardening is a technique by which plants can be grown in a vertical structure without soil, to obtain a maximum possible yield within a particular space indoors or outdoors. Organic vertical gardening is carried out without the application of synthetic chemicals and fertilizers, following the standards and approved inputs of the National Organic Program (NOP). Currently, there is a conflict on the relationship between organic vertical gardens and organic farming practices between urban growers due to the cultivation of plants without soil in the latter. Little to know studies have been done on organic vertical farms as of date. Several cultivars of lettuce, chard, kale, mustard-green, basil and coriander grown in the verti-grow system and were harvested successfully. Automated system called 'Drip Organics' provided organic nutrients to the plants. Perlite and coco fiber media was used in the stacked pots. Although modern organic farming would remain a widely food production method as evidenced by its global acceptance and steady growth, organic vertical farming has a potential to provide food security, year-round produce and ease transportation of food within urban and semi urban areas. This article discussed cultivar trials in organic vertical system on the certified organic farm of the Tennessee State University, Nashville.

In order to overcome the challenges posed by the prevailing biotic and abiotic factors, plants have evolved various characteristics that confer survival and ensure adaptation to certain unfavorable conditions, consequently, leading to diversity. Increasing knowledge in the era of genome sequencing of organisms makes it evident that all forms of diversity have their origin rooted in the genes. In this context, genetic diversity analysis provides a powerful tool that enhances a comprehensive understanding of genetic variation and improves conservation strategies. Plant diversity refers to the variety of plants that exist on the Earth. Understanding genetic diversities among fruits and vegetable plants are of significant importance because of not only their agricultural importance but also their economic values. It is important to keep regular assessments of the conservation status of these plant species, in order to prioritize those in need of conservation action. In order to access genetic diversity easily by researchers and breeders, most crops are conserved in genebanks, seed, and/or field, typically as part of individual national germplasm systems. The improvement of fruits and vegetable plants considerably depends on the extent of genetic variability existing within the species as well as their crop wild relatives. The genetic variation that exists among plant populations is a basic requirement for efficient improvement of such populations. It also serves as an evidence to prove whether such a population can withstand unpredictable changes in the environment. Molecular studies provide insight into relationships and diversity among plant breeds. The extent and nature of genetic diversity of fruits and vegetable plants from all around the world has been investigated by typing DNA markers in a set of individuals belonging to several breeds. The availability of PCR-based molecular markers and next-generation sequencing allows for the detailed analyses and evaluation of genetic diversity in plants and to detect genes that influence certain desirable, important traits. In this chapter, we provide a comprehensive survey on the genetic diversity among some important families of fruits and vegetable plants.

This article contributes to efforts to validate a common set of parameters and principles of sustainable agriculture. Comparisons between alternative forms of sustainable agriculture and rural-to-urban community resilience are investigated. Conclusions are drawn between multiple sustainable/alternative agriculture systems and evaluated. A set of common baseline parameters and principles is proposed as a method of evolving a common structural framework for strengthening sustainability of agriculture and rural contexts. Concepts of rural-to-urban community sustainability are proposed, supporting sustainable agriculture contexts as rural and urban. In the twenty-first century, agriculture is becoming more diversified and less typified as a rural occupation. Urban agriculture is expanding as the need for fresh, affordable, accessible agriculture produce increases in urban areas. Evidence supports symbiotic relationships between sustainable agriculture and rural/urban communities, although some claim t...

Organic agriculture is a production system that maintains the health of an agro-ecosystem by enhancing biodiversity and producing healthy soils by eliminating the use of chemicals. Other practices are used to enhance properties of the soil and increase long term soil fertility and prevent pest and diseases. Globally, organic agriculture has grown approximately by 20% yearly as consumers and growers make healthier food choices and show more concern about the impacts of our actions on the environment. Organic agriculture attempts to increase the level of food security and create a more sustainable environment for future generations. Organic certification has continuously increased as the benefits steady arise for farmers looking to produce healthier food. This article will observe the history, present day, challenges, certifications, impacts and benefits of the intriguing organic agricultural world.

The growing populations in urban areas and the decrease in available land are major constraints to sustainable crop production in and around cities. All over the world, many people do not get enough food and proper nourishment. Urban horticulture which is the production of vegetables, herbs, medicinal and ornamental plants around cities may serve as a solution. Worldwide, temperatures vary in different seasons and urban growers face challenges in sustaining production due to poor yield and crop losses. Therefore, urban horticultural growers may need to employ new techniques and tools to improve their practices. However, many of these recent developments require capital, access to specific information, knowledge, and resources to improve their skills on production, processing, and marketing of their produce. This paper reviews the recent developments in urbanization and urban horticulture, the types of urban horticulture as well as tools and techniques in urban horticulture. The focus of this paper is on recent developments in vertical farming systems (hydroponics, aeroponics, and aquaponics) including organic vertical farming research. Also listed in this study are solutions that urban horticulture provides such as provision of food security and, poverty alleviation. Some of the concerns, challenges, and benefits in urban vertical farming systems would also be explored.

Field trials were conducted on tomato for yield and quality of fruits using different types of organic and inorganic fertilizers at the horticulture farm of Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh. Fertilizer treatments were tested on two varieties of tomato ca. Roma VF and BARI 15. The fertilization treatments were T1, vermicompost (12 t/ha); T2, compost (10 t/ha); T3, integrated plant nutrient system (IPNS) or mixed fertilizers (organic 2/3 part and inorganic 1/3 part); T4, inorganic fertilizers; and a control (T5). Results showed growth and yield (20.8 t/ha) in tomato were higher in the IPNS treatment. A higher number of fruits per plant (73.7) and plant height (73.5 cm) were obtained from mixed fertilizers (organic 2/3 + inorganic 1/3) or IPNS (integrated plant nutrient system) in Roma VF than other treatments. Fruit yield and diameter were found statistically significant. No significant difference was observed in the quality (total soluble solids) of tomato fruits in both varieties’ response to the treatments. The electrical conductivity and pH of the soil were improved by the application of organic manure.

Urban Agriculture is here to stay and is defined as the growing, processing, and distribution of food and other products through intensive plant cultivation and animal husbandry in and around cities. Growing food and non-food crops in and near cities contributes to healthy communities by engaging residents in work and recreation that improves individual and public well-being. Urban agriculture integrates multiple functions in densely populated areas offering an alternative land use. In addition to food production, urban agriculture also offers a wide range of other functions such as energy conservation, waste management, biodiversity, nutrient cycling, microclimate control, urban greening, economic revitalization, community socialization, human health, preservation of cultural heritage, and education.

Organic agriculture (OA) advocates against the application of chemical and genetically modified (GM) materials on farms except those approved by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) National Organic Standards Board (NOSB) which consists of a voluntary team of 15 advisors selected by the secretary of the United States of Agriculture. Globally, OA has grown approximately by 20 % yearly as consumers and growers make healthier food choices and show more concern about the impacts of our actions on the environment. OA attempts to increase the level of food security and create a more sustainable environment for future generations. Nevertheless, OA is not without its challenges. In this chapter, we take a look at the history, the present, and the future of OA. Our focus is on outlining briefly the status of OA on various continents, their certification processes, global challenges, benefits and impacts, the way forward, the position of the government, policies and the institutions, and consumer behavior toward OA.

Agriculture is the principal economic activity of Nepal contributing about 35 % to the national GDP and engaging about 66 % of the population. Existing low productivity of agriculture has resulted in food insecure and food deficit nation. Degradation of resources, mainly land, water, agrobiodiversity, and forest, is believed to be the immediate cause for the low productivity. Therefore, agricultural practices those conserve and promote productivity level while regenerating the degraded natural resource are of paramount importance in Nepal. Organic farming has been proven as one of such practices as it promotes and maintains soil and human health, manages and enhances biodiversity, and offers better nutrient cycling and mineralization with favorable microclimatic regimes, and thereby less risk to farmers. Till the recent past, agriculture in Nepal was organic with self-sustained method of production relying on integration of local biodiversity using traditional knowledge and wisdom. However, for the last three decades, use of high yielding exotic crops/varieties and agrochemicals, introduced under the banner of Green Revolution Agriculture (GRA), has become pervasive. Although, GRA served its short-term propose to some extent to increase the production of major food crops, over the time, the indiscriminate use of external non-organic inputs resulted in soil degradation, loss of biodiversity, food poisoning, environmental pollution, and threat to sustainability and food security. This devastating scenario compelled the stakeholders to think of alternative resilient practices as a long-term solution to conserving the resource base and salvaging the environment. Organic agriculture, as advocated and promoted by International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) based on worldwide research results, can be instrumental to address the current as well as long-term problems of agriculture in Nepal. The practice of organic agriculture is not new for Nepalese farmers because it is a traditional mainstream food production system from the time immemorial. However, as a movement, organic agriculture has emerged as a new intervention in farming in recent years. Development of addictive sense toward chemical-based farming made difficult to convince farmers about immediate and long-term advantage of organic agriculture. Therefore, non-government organizations are involved to advocate, promote, and popularize organic farming with policy support from the government. Growing health and environmental consciousness against chemical farming among consumers has helped the movement advance faster. At present, many conscious farmers, entrepreneurs, and academic and development institutions are focusing their efforts to promote organic farming in the country. Government has also formulated some policies favoring the shift from chemical-based farming to organic farming. This chapter focuses on general features on the past and present of Nepalese agriculture; its resource base; declining productivity and sustainability; and the role of organic farming as a viable option for food security and livelihood sustainability in Nepal.

Traditional medicines, the mainstay of medical treatment for virtually all minor ailments in many developing countries, have been tapped for the production of new therapeutics in the sustenance of human health and well-being. Vulnerable to the vicissitudes of globalization issues such as intellectual property rights, trade and gender are of relevance in the Pacific region that is a source of some unique traditional healing systems.

In the Caribbean, increasing food production and environmental conservation are major preoccupations, which have been exacerbated by the recent food crises and the rise in prices of imported inputs and foodstuffs (Singh et al., Competitiveness study, policy proposals: enhancing international competiveness, the CARICOM regional transformation program for Agriculture, CARICOM, 2007). Thus, there is an increasing demand for horticultural systems that produce safe food with high added value. Within the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), crop production may be divided into five sub-categories namely fruits, roots and tubers, vegetables, herbs and spices and pulses and nuts. This review summarizes vegetable production systems in the Caribbean region.