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Tajikistan, a country of approximately nine million people, has a relatively small but quickly growing HIV epidemic. No peer-reviewed study has assessed factors associated with HIV, or associated risk factors, among female sex workers (FSWs) in Tajikistan. The purpose of the current study is to elucidate the factors associated with HIV status and risk factors in the Tajikistani context and add to the scant literature on risk factors among FSWs in Tajikistan and Central Asia. We used cross-sectional data from an HIV bio-behavioral survey (BBS) conducted among FSWs in the Republic of Tajikistan ( n = 2174) in 2017. Using Respondent Driven Sampling Analysis Tool software, we calculated the prevalence of HIV, diagnosed cases, linkage to antiretroviral therapy (ART), and the prevalence of syphilis for FSWs in Tajikistan. Prevalence data were adjusted for network size and any clustering effects in the network. Further, using univariate and multivariable logistic regression, we determined correlates of HIV-positive status. Results were as follows: Of all FSWs in Tajikistan, 2.6% (95% CI: 1.7–3.8%) are HIV positive, 2.3% (95% CI: 1.4–3.5%) are diagnosed and aware of their status, and 2.0% (95% CI: 1.2–3.1%) are on ART. About 5.7% (95% CI: 4.5–7.4%) of FSWs in Tajikistan have ever had syphilis, and 0.8% (95% CI: 0.4–1.3%) have active syphilis infections. The epidemic of injection drug use was found to be strongly synergistic with HIV infection as having had sex with a person who injects drugs was shown to be strongly associated with HIV-positive status (OR: 5.2; 95% CI: 2.6–10.2) in the multivariable model. While this study estimates that HIV prevalence among Tajikistani FSWs is relatively low, it is likely an underestimated due to selection and social desirability biases. To curb the small, but potentially volatile, HIV epidemic among FSWs, the government should consider targeted testing and linkage-to-care efforts for FSWs who inject drugs or who have people who inject drugs partners. Services should also be prioritized in Gorno-Badakhshan, which has a higher number of FSWs per capita relative to other regions. Additionally, the link between HIV and experiences of stigma, violence, and discrimination against FSWs should motivate advocates to protect Tajikistani FSWs from these experiences.

Tajikistan is in a unique geopolitical location along the global heroin trade route, exacerbating its own opioid use disorder and HIV epidemics. With one of the highest rates of opioid use disorder in the world, and 20,000-30,000 people who inject drugs in the country, Tajikistan’s government and international actors have provided harm reduction measures for people who use drugs, like narcology centers, needle and syringe programs, and methadone maintenance therapy. No implementation science studies have been conducted in Tajikistan and the current implementation gaps in service uptake are unknown. The purpose of this paper is to determine the prevalence of harm reduction service uptake among people who use drugs in Tajikistan, and determine which factors are associated with service uptake. Methods This paper uses data from the National AIDS Registry, subset to patients who use drugs (n=11,029) and cross-sectional data from a bio-behavioral survey conducted in 2017 (n=2,390). Univariate and multivariate logistic regression were used to assess associations between study variables and probably of uptake of narcology center registration, uptake of needle and syringe programs, and registration into methadone maintenance therapy. Results Fewer than half of all people who inject drugs (42.4%) were registered with the narcology center , most people who inject drugs (88.6%) reported always having access to clean syringes, and only 5.3% of PWID had ever engaged in methadone treatment in Tajikistan. There were ethnic differences in service uptake – with ethnic Russians and Uzbeks less likely to use services than ethnic Tajiks. Men who have sex with men and people living with HIV were also more likely to access services than heterosexual or seronegative individuals. Conclusion Narcology center registration and clean needle coverage are high in Tajikistan. Methadone maintenance therapy uptake, however, is low, like in other countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. NGO and government initiatives that target risk groups (like LGBTQ+ people and people living with HIV) seem to have been somewhat effective at recruiting their clientele into services. Future research might focus on the “positive deviancy” of these subgroups of people who use drugs to learn how to increase service uptake generally.

Background Between 700 thousand and 1.2 million citizens of Tajikistan currently live in the Russian Federation, one of the only countries where the HIV epidemic continues to worsen. Given the previously reported barriers to healthcare access for migrants to the Russian Federation, and the rapidly expanding HIV epidemic in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, this present study set out to determine whether these barriers impact late presentation with HIV among Tajikistani migrants upon their return to Tajikistan. Method This study uses data from the Tajikistan Ministry of Health surveillance system (2006 – 2019). At time of diagnosis, patients are interviewed by staff of AIDS centers, and doctors complete routine intake forms and complete medical exams. Descriptive characteristics of migrants with HIV who had lived in the Russian Federation (n=503) were calculated and compared with those of non-migrants with HIV (n=9519). Missing data were imputed using multiple imputation (predictive means matching, logistic regression imputation, and polytomous regression imputation). Two logistic models were created to model the probability of late presentation for HIV. The first model shows unadjusted associations between predictor variables and late presentation for HIV. The second model shows multivariable associations between significant study variables identified in the univariate model, and late presentation. Results Compared to non-migrants, migrants with HIV are more likely to be from Gorno-Badakhshan region, are less likely to use illicit drugs, and are more likely to have purchased the services of sex workers. The unadjusted logistic model found that for every year spent in the Russian Federation, the risk of late presentation for a Tajikistani migrant with HIV increases by 4.0% (95% CI: 0.3-7.7). The multivariate model showed that when age, sex, and region of origin are held constant, the risk of late presentation for a Tajikistani migrant with HIV increases by 4.0% (95% CI: 0.1-7.8) for each year spent in the Russian Federation. Conclusion The results of this paper suggest that if the Russian Federation were to loosen its restrictions on HIV care for foreign nationals, it might improve the treatment outcomes of migrant laborers. As this analysis is only correlational in nature, further research is needed to explicate the causal pathways of the associations found in the present analysis.

Between 800 thousand and 1.2 million citizens of Tajikistan currently live in the Russian Federation, one of the only countries where the HIV epidemic continues to worsen. Given the previously reported barriers to healthcare access for migrants in to the Russian Federation, and the rapidly expanding HIV epidemic in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, this present study set out to determine whether these barriers impact late presentation with HIV upon their return to Tajikistan. This study uses data from the Tajikistan Ministry of Health surveillance system. The dataset contains all new known HIV diagnoses between 2006 and 2018. At time of diagnosis, patients are interviewed by staff of AIDS centers, complete routine intake forms and complete medical exam and related forms by doctors. HIV-positive returned migrants who had lived in the Russian Federation (n = 770) were included in final data-analysis after data cleaning. Data were analyzed using three logistic (logit) models. The unadjusted logistic model found that for every year spent in the Russian Federation, the risk of late presentation for an HIV-positive Tajikistani migrant increases by 10.3% (95% CI: 5.5-15.3). The saturated multivariate model showed that when holding all study variables constant, the risk of late presentation for an HIV-positive Tajikistani migrant increases by 9.5% (95% CI: 2.6-16.9). The parsimonious multivariate model showed that when current age and region of origin are held constant, the risk of late presentation for an HIV-positive Tajikistani migrant increases by 6.3 (95% CI: 1.1-11.8). Even when other potential predictors are included in the logistic model, only age and length of time abroad remain statistically significant. The results of this paper suggest that if the Russian Federation were to adopt a reciprocal policy, it might improve treatment outcomes of migrant laborers. Further research is needed to explicate the causal pathways of the associations found in the present analysis. Key messages Structural factors are the strongest predictors of HIV late presentation among returned Tajik migrants to the Russian Federation. Further research is needed to explicate the causal pathways of the associations found in the present analysis.

There is a growing human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic in Tajikistan. This paper presents factors associated with linkage to HIV care among people aged 15 years and older in Tajikistan. This retrospective cross-sectional study used the Tajikistan Ministry of Health HIV registry data from patients diagnosed with HIV at age 15 years or older from 2000 to 2016. Chi squared tests and logistic regression models tested factors associated with linkage to care. A multivariable logistic regression model examined effect modifications. While linkage to care had an overall increase from 2000 to 2016, the odds of linkage were lower among certain sub-groups including among people in Dushanbe, men, people engaging in sex work, injection drug users, and older people. Regional differences exist with linkage to care, occurring least frequently in Dushanbe. While access to care and quality of care have increased significantly over time, findings suggest that linkage to care is low, especially in the capital city where many services are provided. Evaluation focusing on acceptability of HIV services should be undertaken to understand why certain people do not link with services. Additional research about the types of barriers to linking with HIV care is needed to increase linkage to HIV care.

Background: HIV and Hepatitis C (HCV) infections are increasing in Tajikistan. While injection drug use (IDU) is a known risk factor for coinfection, little is known about non-injection drug users (NIDU). Objectives: The aim of this study was to identify factors associated with HIV-HCV coinfection and HIV infection alone among IDU and NIDU. Methods: Data from Tajikistan’s national HIV/AIDS registry data for all adults aged 18 years and older who had received a HCV test from 2006 to 2016 were obtained. Chi-square analyses identified factors associated with coinfection and injection drug use. Results: Of the 1849 people living with HIV who received a Hepatitis C test, 36.2% were positive for HCV and 63.8% were negative. Coinfection occurred among 74.4% of IDU and 18.5% of NIDU. In bivariate analyses, among both IDU and NIDU, coinfection was associated with urbanness of living location, having partner with a positive HIV test, marital status, region, and being imprisoned. Among IDU, coinfection was also associated with migrant status. Among NIDU, coinfection was also associated with gender, age at diagnosis, and AIDS stage at first diagnosis. Conclusions: This study shows that coinfection occurs most frequently among IDU in general, but that NIDU represent an important population deserving of additional study and tailored HIV and HCV prevention programs. Additional research to identify best practices for targeting NIDU and people living in at-risk regions for screening and are required to effectively prevent and then appropriately manage coinfection.