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Purpose In the macroeconomic environment of the Iberian Peninsula, this paper aims to examine the influence of corporate governance characteristics on corporate sustainability performance. The purpose of this paper is to address corporate practices while determining which corporate governance characteristics can improve corporate sustainability, considering, for this purpose, three dimensions of sustainability: economic, environmental and social. Design/methodology/approach This sample comprises 99 non-financial companies of the Iberian Peninsula, during the 2013–2017 period. The authors have used the panel data methodology, specifically the generalized method of moments (GMM) estimation method proposed by Arellano and Bover (1995) and Blundell and Bond (1998) to test the hypotheses formulated. Findings The results obtained have shown that corporate sustainability performance is affected differently depending on the sustainability dimension that is considered. Specifically, the economic dimension is determined by public debt, the board size, board diversity and the existence of an audit committee. Regarding the environmental dimension, the board size and the presence of the audit committee, as well the corporate social responsibility committee, are the most important determinants. Finally, the social dimension was influenced by the board size, audit committee and the control variable of capital structure, which means that in this dimension, the sources of financing used by the company also help in determining its levels of social concern. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first time that a study has been carried out in the Iberian Peninsula on the corporate sustainability using GMM-system model for three dimensions of sustainability. Corporate sustainability depends on external and internal factors of companies. Therefore, regulators and managers should realize that they will have to be more effective in their statements.

Using data from 2003 to 2020, this study uses a scientometric approach to investigate the nexus between Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and corporate tax aggressiveness research. The objective is to identify under-explored regions, variables, citation patterns, theories, and unexplored topics in the body of knowledge to establish trends in publications on issues about corporate social responsibility and corporate tax aggressiveness. In addition, the study also considers publication journal areas of focus. Research linking CSR and tax avoidance using VOSviewer and triangulating with CiteSpace, by way of approach, is not found in the literature. The findings suggest that CSR and corporate tax aggressiveness researchers do not use far-reaching relevant theories and applicable findings from studies beyond their clusters. Another finding is that African countries remain under-explored due to the absence of institutional representation and an adequate number of investigators regarding CSR and corporate tax aggressiveness research. Finally, the study reveals a number of research topics to be explored. Governments, particularly in developing economies, should create policies that define taxes as part of an entity’s CSR narrative to enhance transparency and legitimacy. In addition, the study is of immense significance to master and PhD students since it provides an agenda for future research., This paper was financed by National Funds of the FCT-Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology within the project “UIDB/03182/2020”.

A look into the literature on corporate social responsibility (CSR) reveals few studies focusing on the relationship between ethical concerns and corporate behavior of companies that perform tax evasion management. This study links tax management with ethics and CSR reporting. The purpose of this article is to analyze financial and social responsibility information disclosed by the five main Brazilian construction companies that are being investigated in Brazil&rsquo, s Operation Car Wash (Opera&ccedil, &atilde, o Lava-Jato&mdash, in Portuguese) because of inappropriate behavior. Based on the theoretical concepts of organizational fa&ccedil, ades and organized hypocrisy, we used content-analysis methodology and lexical search approach to analyze the consistency between the practices of tax management and CSR reporting. The results reveal evidence of aggressive tax management. To meet its tax management objectives, a company usually manages and plans taxes accordingly, delaying the payment of tax debt and not reporting all tax risks, thus being fined for violations of the law. We found evidence of organized hypocrisy and organizational fa&ccedil, ades, since there are contradictions between the tax behavior of the investigated companies and their CSR and ethical discourse.

We use a theoretical framework based on concepts of historical institutionalism, institutional logic and ideology to enhance understanding of how government accounting and taxation helped to institutionalize slavery in Brazil by interpreting enslaved people as an economic commodity. We conduct an interpretive critical analysis using archival sources from the period 1531–1888. The social practice of government accounting and taxation produced and conveyed meaning using symbolic forms that ranged from everyday statements to complex texts and images. These codified financial realities in a way that reified slavery and influenced the historical trajectory of slavery. Government accounting and taxation practices were self-reinforcing sequences. They encouraged a structural inertia that was not conducive to de-reification of the slave trade or of slavery. We reveal how government accounting and taxation institutionalized government administration of slavery by according it social authority, social reality and temporal endurance.

Through the theoretical lenses of Foucault’s governmentality, Latour’s action at a distance and Althusser’s ideology theory, this article shows how accounting regulations allowed the Brazilian government to exercise control over the tutelage system of former slaves (‘Free Africans’) between 1818 and 1864. It finds that the measures undertaken to reinforce the accounting regulations permitted the Brazilian government to control ‘Free Africans’ at a distance while minimizing interference in this process from a British government intent upon abolishing slavery.

In 2014, a European Union (EU) Directive required certain large undertakings and groups to disclose non-financial information from 2017 onwards. In 2017, the EU guidelines on non-financial reporting established that reporting climate-related information is part of the non-financial information. Later, in 2019, the guidelines were reinforced to include a supplement that envisages improving climate-related information reporting. Banks can contribute to reducing climate-related risks by supporting investments in economic activities that aim to mitigate the risk of climate change. Capital needs should be reoriented towards sustainable investment. Banks shall manage financial risks arising from climate change, therefore, they must integrate climate change into their policies and procedures, assessing the potential impact of projects and financing on climate change. This study aimed to evaluate how banks in Portugal have been reporting climate-related information and whether the level of information has increased since 2017. Using content analysis, findings indicated that banks are already including climate-related information, however, they are still far from approaching what the new guidelines require. Results suggested that there is still a long way to go in this area concerning banks and regulators.

This paper explores factors that have affected the success of candidates in the professional entry exam conducted by Brazil’s Federal Council of Accounting. We analyse results of 18,948 candidates who sat for the exam in 2012, using a logistic regression model and the key indicators used by government to monitor the performance of higher education institutions (HEIs) and the characteristics of candidates. We find that success is related positively to the quality of the HEIs from which candidates graduated and to a measure of student ability that is used widely in Brazil. We find also that males perform better than females and that younger candidates perform better than older candidates. The geographical region of Brazil within which candidates completed the exam was also significant. The insights provided will help public policy-makers in Brazil, and the Brazilian accounting profession, to understand key factors associated with current low pass rates published

The aim of this paper is to examine the influence of Portuguese Foundation’s characteristics on their annual report disclosure practices. Data were collected from 142 Foundations in Portugal, which represents 50.9% of the Portuguese foundational sector. Supported by a Structural Equation Model (SEM), this study evaluates cause–effect relationship between Voluntary Disclosure, Board Structure, Organizations’ Characteristics and the existence of Auditing. Findings reveal that Organizations’ Characteristics influence the forms of Auditing, and on its turn, Auditing has a positive indirect impact on Voluntary Disclosure. Contrary to expectations, Board Structure does not affect Voluntary Disclosure. This paper fills a void in the literature by examining the impact of Foundations’ characteristics on their voluntary disclosure of financial and non-financial information.

This is a response to questions raised by Kuruppu and Lehman (2016) and Thomson (2016) on Fontes, Rodrigues and Craig’s (2016) model of Stakeholder Perceptions of a New Financial Reporting System. We clarify some matters that arise from the commentators’ concerns about the intended contribution of the model, and its conceptual foundations. We also respond to concerns raised about the need to adopt a holistic and contextualized approach; provide further insights to the complex and dynamic nature of stakeholder perceptions and their formation; and elaborate on methodological assumptions underpinning the model. We argue that interpretative-based research offers an appropriate and challenging way to further improve and extend the model. We encourage researchers to adopt critical and interpretive-based methods to foster a reflective debate that will lead to improvements in the Stakeholder Perceptions model.

While authentic leadership is highly valued in today’s business world, managers do not necessarily have the resources to attain it. Building on conservation of resources theory, we propose a conceptual model to address how personal and contextual resources predict authentic leadership. Study 1 analyzes the day-to-day variability in managers’ positive psychological capacities as personal resources in relation to changes in authentic leadership. In addition, it tests ethical organizational climates as stable, contextual resources for authentic leadership. In Study 2, we replicate our results on the between-person level and extend the research model by exploring promotion focus as a link in the relationship between personal resources and authentic leadership. Evidence from an experience sampling study with 89 managers surveyed daily on 10 consecutive work days (Study 1) and a field survey of 130 managers at two points in time (Study 2) supports the hypothesized role of personal resources and promotion focus for authentic leadership. In both studies, only principled but not benevolent ethical organizational climates emerged as a contextual resource for authentic leadership. We discuss the implications for current management research and practice.

We revisit religiosity, gender, age, ethics education and experience as drivers of ethicality, while expanding prior research from Anglo-Saxon and Asiatic/Euro-Asiatic countries to a Latin European country, Portugal. We apply the Merchant (1989) instrument of attitudes towards earnings management, in a sample of Portuguese accounting students and alumni. We find no significant evidence of a positive association between religiosity and accountants’ judgments on earnings management. However, gender, age, education (and accounting ethics education) and experience are significant predictors of accountants’ judgments. The results are unchanged when we control for the intent (selfish benefit) of earnings management. Females, older individuals and alumni judge accounting earnings management more harshly than males, younger individuals, and students (who have not yet completed an accounting ethics course). A higher level of accounting work experience induces accountants to judge accounting earnings management as a less ethically questionable practice. This finding is theoretically relevant because it underscores the necessity of taking people’s constraints in the workplace into consideration when studying ethical behavior in business contexts. The results are also practically relevant, as they highlight the importance of a systematic ethics education throughout the accountant’s life., Funding -This paper is financed by National Funds of the FCT –Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology within the project UID/ECO/03182/2019

Despite being widely pilloried, bureaucratic processes are present in many organizations as a form of neobureaucracy. In this paper, we analyse whether a technique used in Management Accounting Systems (MAS), known as the Balanced Scorecard (BSC), represents a bureaucratic order. We propose the following set of concepts to identify a bureaucratic order: authority, jurisdiction, professional qualications, knowledge, rationality, discipline, accountability, systematization and transparency. We discuss the presence of such a set of concepts in the design and implementation of the BSC and conclude that the BSC is an example of a neo-bureaucratic order. This paper also underlines another important finding, the value of bureaucracy in attaining good MAS. The theme we explore is overlooked in the accounting literature. This paper can be a starting point for further research. A pesar de haber sido ampliamente criticado, los procesos burocráticos están presente en muchos modelos organizacionales como una forma de neo-burocracia. En este artículo analizamos si una técnica utilizada en los Sistemas de contabilidad de gestión (MAS), conocida como Balanced Scorecard (BSC), representa una orden burocrática. Proponemos el siguiente conjunto de conceptos para identificar una orden burocrática: autoridad, jurisdicción, calificaciones profesionales, conocimiento, racionalidad, disciplina, responsabilidad, sistematización y transparencia. Discutimos la presencia de dicho conjunto de conceptos en la concepción e implementación del BSC y concluimos que el BSC es un ejemplo de un orden neo-burocrático. Este trabajo también subraya otro hallazgo importante, el valor de la burocracia para lograr un buen MAS. El tema que exploramos se pasa por alto en la literatura contable. Este artículo puede ser un punto de partida para futuras investigaciones.

PurposeCorporate Social Responsibility (CSR) literature has focused mainly on larger firms. Only recently has discussion of the engagement of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in CSR emerged in research studies. Here we contribute to that growing discussion of CSR in SMEs by analyzing the disclosure practices of 57 Portuguese companies of different sizes (small, medium, large).Design/methodology/approachWe use stakeholder theory to identify the stakeholders that SMEs and large firms prioritize. By means of thematic content analysis and an index of disclosure (calculated according to company type and stakeholder type) we analyze whether business characteristics influence CSR disclose strategies.FindingsCompanies give priority to CSR activities that are directly related to maintaining business and achieving economic results. CSR disclosure practices of SMEs and large companies do not differ significantly. However, larger companies disclose more information on Environment and Society. Companies who are closer to consumers disclose more information on Customers, Community and Society. The act of assuring a CSR report drives system improvements and extended CSR disclosure.Research limitations/implicationsWe recognize that it is difficult to compare CSR in Small and large enterprises. For this reason, we have developed a methodology based on the most basic aspects of the CSRD, and therefore applicable without distinction to large and small companies.Practical implicationsA framework to evaluate the CSRD of SMEs was developed. We identify CSR indicators divided in five dimensions (customers, employees, environment, community and society) that are applicable to firms of all sizes.Originality/valueThis study extends knowledge of CSR by comparing the disclosure practices of SMEs and large (listed and un-listed) Portuguese companies. This study takes account of the particularities of SMEs and other fundamental business characteristics using a replicable assessment framework.

The Lisbon School of Commerce, established in 1759, was important in the diffusion of knowledge about accounting in Portugal and the Portuguese Empire. Although scholarly literature has canvassed the reasons for the school’s creation, and has profiled its first two teachers, little is known about the manuscripts that were dictated in classes, or the early textbooks used. This paper fills this void by exploring three manuscripts used in the Lisbon School of Commerce that are indexed at the National Library of Portugal and the University of Coimbra Library. Two important insights emerge. We show how Souza and Sales used the technical and the rhetorical dimension of accounting to diffuse new accounting practices; and we reveal why manuscripts were dictated and why they were used in the classroom. In doing so, we explore how double entry bookkeeping (DEB) was taught and we highlight how Souza and Sales helped to diffuse DEB knowledge in Portugal.

Purpose – This study analyses the determinants of the level of corporategovernance disclosure (CGD) by Portuguese companies listed onEuronext Lisbon between 2005 and 2011.Design/methodology/approach – Using content analysis, weconstruct a corporate governance index for each firm based on the dataextracted from the firm’s corporate governance and annual reports. Anordinal logistic regression model is used to examine the relationshipbetween the level of CGD and its determinants.Findings – The empirical evidence suggests that foreign investorownership, board size, board independence, external audit quality anddegree of internationalization had a significant and positive influenceon the corporate governance disclosure level, whereas ownershipconcentration, unitary leadership structure and debt had a significantand negative influence on corporate governance disclosure. No resultswere observed for board of director ownership and manager stockoption compensation variables.Originality/value – This study extends the previous literature byexamining corporate governance disclosure. Moreover, it extends priorwork by analysing foreign investor ownership, manager stock optioncompensation and degree of internationalization as determinants ofinformation disclosure. Finally, we believe that this study, conductedover a longer period of time, might give us stronger statistical evidence. Objetivo – Este estudo analisa os determinantes da divulgação deinformação sobre a estrutura de governança (DIEG) de uma amostrade empresas portuguesas listadas na Euronext Lisbon, entre 2005 e 2011.Metodologia – Utilizando a técnica de análise de conteúdo, construiuseum índice de divulgação para cada empresa e aplicou-se um modelode regressão ordinal logística para aferir as hipóteses.Resultados – Os resultados sugerem que a participação de investidoresestrangeiros no capital, o tamanho e a independência do conselhode administração, a qualidade da auditoria externa e o grau deinternacionalização das empresas melhoram o nível de DIEG. Porsua vez, a concentração da propriedade, a existência de estruturasde liderança unitárias e o endividamento exercem uma influêncianegativa no nível de divulgação. Não foi possível constatar resultadosestatisticamente significativos para as variáveis participação da gestãono capital e remuneração dos gestores com base em stock options emPortugal.Contribuições – Este estudo contribui para a literatura relativa àdivulgação de informação, tendo como foco a informação sobre aestrutura de governança das empresas. Além disso, acrescenta à literaturaas dimensões: investidores qualificados estrangeiros, atribuição deplanos de ações aos membros do conselho de administração e grau deinternacionalização, até agora pouco exploradas. Por fim, é realizadauma análise longitudinal e transversal ao longo de sete anos, poucoutilizada em estudos prévios. Objetivo – Este estudo analisa os determinantes da divulgação deinformação sobre a estrutura de governança (DIEG) de uma amostrade empresas portuguesas listadas na Euronext Lisbon, entre 2005 e 2011.Metodologia – Utilizando a técnica de análise de conteúdo, construiuseum índice de divulgação para cada empresa e aplicou-se um modelode regressão ordinal logística para aferir as hipóteses.Resultados – Os resultados sugerem que a participação de investidoresestrangeiros no capital, o tamanho e a independência do conselhode administração, a qualidade da auditoria externa e o grau deinternacionalização das empresas melhoram o nível de DIEG. Porsua vez, a concentração da propriedade, a existência de estruturasde liderança unitárias e o endividamento exercem uma influêncianegativa no nível de divulgação. Não foi possível constatar resultadosestatisticamente significativos para as variáveis participação da gestãono capital e remuneração dos gestores com base em stock options emPortugal.Contribuições – Este estudo contribui para a literatura relativa àdivulgação de informação, tendo como foco a informação sobre aestrutura de governança das empresas. Além disso, acrescenta à literaturaas dimensões: investidores qualificados estrangeiros, atribuição deplanos de ações aos membros do conselho de administração e grau deinternacionalização, até agora pouco exploradas. Por fim, é realizadauma análise longitudinal e transversal ao longo de sete anos, poucoutilizada em estudos prévios.

The almost absence of sustainability reports in Portugal prepared using the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) guidelines in public sector (PS) entities led to the study of the strategic responses to institutional pressures, as suggested by Oliver (1991), in the few entities that publish such reports. The objective of this chapter is to determine the institutional factors that motivated sustainability disclosure in GRI reports. An interpretative approach through open questionnaire was used to analyze the strategic responses to the institutional pressures and expectations provided by PS entities. The results show that not all the institutional factors that lead Portuguese PS entities to disclose their social responsibility are in the acquiescence line, accommodating other strategic responses. Thus, this acquiescence is verified when the consistency with organizational goals is high and when the constraints and the multiplicity of stakeholders are low.

In this research, we aim to examine how large auditing firms and audit/non‐audit fees affect corporate social responsibility (CSR) disclosure. We show that the big four auditing firms and the audit and non‐audit fees paid by audited firms encourage CSR reporting. Overall, our findings suggest that big auditing firms play a relevant role in CSR disclosure, which may help to mitigate informative asymmetries between managers and stakeholders. Furthermore, audit and non‐audit fees paid by audited companies promote voluntary non‐financial information disclosure. These findings should be of interest to policymakers given the relevant role that CSR disclosure may play in the decision‐making processes of all stakeholders.

A publicar pela Emerald in "Corporate communications : an international journal", ISSN 1356-3289, Purpose — In most European code-law oriented Latin countries, the publication a CEO’s letter to shareholders in a company’s annual report is a fairly recent phenomenon. We seek to determine the characteristics which explain why companies in one such country, Portugal, published a CEO’s letter. Design/Methodology/approach — Our holistic theoretical framework draws on elements of agency theory, institutional theory and signalling theory. To understand the characteristics of Portuguese holding companies which published CEO letters, we used a logistic regression model to explore 266 observations over the years 2006-2011. Findings — Publication of a CEO letter increases with the fact of being audited by a Big 4 accounting firm; a higher level of profitability; and a high number of foreign subsidiaries. Other findings are that finance companies are slightly more likely to publish a CEO letter than non-finance companies. The number of CEO letters increased to a peak in 2008, and then declined. Practical implications — The increasing number of companies now publishing a CEO letter raises the concern for regulatory authorities of whether the CEO letter content should be audited, since any numbers presented in the management report have to be audited in Portugal. Originality/value — To the best of our knowledge this is the first empirical exploration of the characteristics which explain why companies publish a CEO’s letter. Mimetic and normative isomorphism is revealed to be a potentially important influence, since there is a tendency of companies audited by Big 4 accounting companies, and with foreign subsidiaries, to publish a CEO letter., The research is financed by National Funds through FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology within the project PEst-OE/EGE/UI4021/2011.

Purpose: In this article we aim to identify and analyze a set of contingent and institutional variables that can potentially influence the knowledge and the adoption of the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) in Portuguese public and private organizations. Design/methodology/approach: Hypotheses were tested using data obtained from a questionnaire sent to 591 public organizations and 549 private organizations in Portugal, with an overall response rate of 31.3%. Findings and Originality/value: The results indicate the association between BSC knowledge and the level of training of employees, and between BSC implementation and conducting training courses. On the other hand, we did not obtain empirical evidence regarding the possible relationship between the BSC implementation and the degree of internal communication, the use of external consultants, questions of "management fads" and the search for legitimacy. Originality/value: In the literature review we did not found bibliographic elements about the contingent and institutional factors that determine the BSC adoption in Portugal, a fact that allowed us to give this study an innovative approach. Moreover, the BSC situation in Portugal has been characterized, doing a comparative study with the results of studies conducted in other countries.

We use a conceptual framework based on institutional theory to assess international accounting harmonization in Latin America by interviewing key informants. We analyse the situation in 13 countries of the Group of Latin American Accounting Standards Setters. Some countries have effected full formal adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). In others IFRS are not permitted. In several countries, IFRS are supplemented by national standards for micro-entities and cooperatives. Material harmonization will be difficult to achieve due to a lack of trained accountants, unreliable enforcement systems, and competing institutional logics related to taxation systems, and the banking and insurance industries., This work was supported financially by the research unit on Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policy (project POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006939), through funds provided by COMPETE2020 - Programa Operacional Competitividade e Internacionalizacao (POCI); and Fundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia, Portugal., info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

This synopsis provides a concise historical contextualisation of current risk disclosure issues, highlights major factors influencing contemporary risk reporting practices, and engages in a reflective overview of four recently published papers on aspects of corporate risk-related disclosures in a code law country, Portugal. The breadth and depth of our analysis is modest. Nonetheless we report findings indicating that risk-related disclosures are inadequate, lack transparency, and compound the difficulty of assessing the risk profile of a company. We contend that recent regulation initiatives have been of dubious effectiveness in improving the quality of risk information disclosed. In respect of the Portuguese context, we find that companies disclose risk-related information principally to reduce agency costs and to enhance corporate reputation. We contend that enhanced corporate accountability would be more likely to ensue if further disclosures of relevant risk-related information were mandated. One mechanism to do so would be through regulations recommended by the International Integrated Reporting Committee (IIRC).

This paper proposes a theoretical model to assess how stakeholders perceive a major change of an accounting regime: for example, the adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards [IFRS] or an IFRS-based financial reporting system. Using a theory borrowing approach, the model evolves from a review of key factors that have been reported to affect perceptions of change. These factors are drawn from literature dealing with management change, institutional arrangements, psychology, information systems, sociology and financial reporting. The proposed model implicates individual, technical, situational, and change process factors as major elements. Thereby, it highlights a multiplicity of matters that influence perceptions of a financial reporting change. The emerging model holds strong prospect of improving understanding of change processes in general, and financial reporting changes, in particular. The proposed model can be used to assess how any major national financial reporting reform is (or will be) perceived, and whether or not the reform will be successful. The practical insights arising from application of the model can be particularly relevant for regulators and standard-setters in devising appropriate strategies for coping with perceived implementation problems.

Purpose This paper investigates the effect of the global financial crisis (GFC) on the level of corporate social responsibility disclosures (CSRD) in the annual report and/or CSR report of 36 major listed Portuguese companies in each of the years 2005, 2008 and 2011. Design/methodology/approach The analysis is framed principally by stakeholder theory. Data were explored using thematic content analysis and an index of disclosure calculated by year, industry type (consumer proximity versus environment sensitivity) and category of information. Findings Before the GFC, Portuguese listed companies increased their CSRD practices significantly. During the crisis, there was a slight decrease in CSRD. However, this was not as pronounced, as it would otherwise have been because it was counteracted by increased disclosures of company interactions with society, particularly in matters of corruption prevention and community engagement. CSRD was higher for companies with high consumer proximity but did not appear to be influenced by companies’ level of environmental sensitivity. Originality/value The results reveal a strong concern by companies for stakeholder management (particularly in respect of community relations) in a period of financial crisis. This study highlights the effect of a company’s proximity to consumers on levels of CSRD.

Available online 20 June 2012, Common explanations for the voluntary adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards [IFRS] have been based on economic efficiency arguments. This paper introduces new theoretical arguments to explain how institutional pressures influence decisions to adopt IFRS voluntarily. Through recourse to an institutional theory context, we combine the analytical framework proposed by Oliver (1991) with the concept of institutional logics, and apply this framework to the financial accounting field for the first time. This combined model shows how multiple forms of rationality constrain company responses to pressures to adopt a new accounting regime. We find that companies in a code law country are willing to change from a code-law institutional logic to a common-law institutional logic if they consider such a change will have positive overall benefits to them. Companies assess the net benefits of change after considering the legitimacy they achieve with IFRS, the consistency of IFRS with their goals and institutional context, and the loss of autonomy they believe they are likely to sustain from adopting IFRS. Contrary to predictions in earlier formulations of institutional theory, we find that the acquiescence of companies in adopting IFRS is not a blind response to institutional demands, but is largely predictable by virtue of the inherent nature and importance of such institutional pressures to them. Prevailing institutional logics are shown to provide important insights to the decisions of companies to adopt IFRS voluntarily. We draw on our results to contend that a company’s acquiescence to institutional pressures to adopt IFRS occurs notwithstanding that they can also contemplate more active strategies (through decoupling)., Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) - Project PEst-OE/EGE/UI4021/2011

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to assess the risk-related disclosure (RRD) practices in annual reports for 2005 Portuguese companies in the non-finance sector. Design/methodology/approach – The paper conducts a content analysis of a sample of 81 companies (42 listed and 39 unlisted). In considering corporate governance effects, the sample is reduced to the 42 listed companies that are required to disclose a corporate governance report. Findings – Implementation of IAS/IFRS and the European Union's Modernisation Directive in 2005 did not affect the quantity and quality of RRD positively. Disclosures are generic, qualitative and backward-looking. Public visibility (as assessed by size and environmental sensitivity) is a crucial influence in explaining RRD: companies appear to manage their reputation through disclosure of risk-related information. Agency costs associated with leverage are important influences also. In listed companies, the presence of independent directors improves the level of RRD. Research limitations/implications – Content analysis does not allow readily for in-depth qualitative inquiry. The coding instrument is subject to coder bias. Information about risk can be provided in sources other than annual reports. The study is confined to one year/one country and pre-dates the global financial crisis (GFC) (2008) and the implementation of IFRS 7 (2007). Originality/value – The results point to the desirability of enhancing accountability by mandating further disclosure of substantive and relevant risk-related information in company annual reports. The RRD observed are shown to be explained by a confluence of agency theory, legitimacy theory and resources-based perspectives., Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT)

From 1860 to 1964, but particularly after 1930, Brazilian society changed from an agrarian to an industrial society and from an emphasis on the export sector to becoming focused primarily on the domestic market. During this period, there were significant changes in accounting that were largely imposed by the State. This note explores the main political, economic and social factors that influenced the development of accounting in Brazil during this period. In a legalist country such as Brazil the development of accounting cannot be effectively studied without considering how accounting affects, and is affected by, the political and social context. The note ends with a call for further accounting history studies about Brazil based on archives and primary sources., Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT)

In Portugal, a concept of taxable income associated closely with reported accounting income is used to determine the tax liability of firms. Recently, the Portuguese government legislated to introduce a system of “special payment on account” (SPA). Firms were required to pay an amount of income tax in advance that varied between a promulgated minimum and maximum. Although such a tax is unique to Portugal, other countries have tax arrangements that are similar in intent. Thus, Portugal’s experience with the introduction of a SPA regime is likely to be instructive in fiscal policy deliberations in other settings. We assess the extent to which the SPA tax policy measure encouraged private Portuguese companies to manipulate earnings. We find that earnings manipulation appears to have been motivated by desire to minimize SPA. Firms whose estimate of SPA liability fell within the range of minimum and maximum limits of the SPA had higher levels of discretionary accruals than firms whose estimate was (equal to or) above the ceiling imposed by the new legislation. Firms with higher rates of income tax were found to reduce earnings to near zero. Firms with higher average income tax rates were more likely to manipulate their earnings than other firms. Our results reinforce the importance for auditors, stakeholders, and tax policy advisors to be alert to the close association between tax planning considerations and reported earnings in their monitoring, analysis, and policy advising activities., Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT)

We assess the value relevance of the amounts for identifiable intangible assets and goodwill reported in the financial statements of all non-finance companies listed on the main market of the Portuguese Stock Exchange from 1998 to 2008. Additionally, we use panel data to explore the impact on value relevance of Portugal’s formal adoption of International Accounting Standards [IAS] and International Financial Reporting Standards [IFRS] in 2005. A distinctive feature of the accounting by our sample companies is that when they adopted IAS 38 and IFRS 3 in 2005, they were no longer required to recognise some intangible assets (such as start-up costs and research expenditures) and were no longer required to amortise goodwill. We find that net earnings, reported goodwill and other intangible assets are highly significantly associated with stock price. However, whereas earnings are related positively to stock prices when Portuguese Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) were applied prior to 2005, the value relevance of earnings appears to have declined after the adoption of IAS/IFRS in 2005. Although the change to IAS/IFRS had no impact on the value relevance of identifiable intangibles as a whole, the evidence suggests that there was a positive effect on the value relevance of goodwill. When the subclasses of identifiable intangible assets are considered, we found evidence of an increase in value relevance of goodwill, other intangible assets, and research and development expenditures.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyse voluntary disclosures of intellectual capital (IC) items in the sustainability reports of Portuguese companies. The paper aims to highlight the level, pattern and determinants of IC disclosures in those sustainability reports; and the potential for sustainability reports to be a medium for IC disclosures.Design/methodology/approachAn index of voluntary disclosure of intangibles is constructed and deployed to analyse IC disclosures in the sustainability reports for 2006 of Portuguese firms, published on the web site of the Portugal's Business Council for Sustainability Development. Four hypotheses are tested about associations between that disclosure index and firm‐specific variables.FindingsDisclosure of information about IC is more likely in sustainability reports of firms that have a higher level of application of the Global Reporting Initiative framework, and are listed companies.Research limitations/implicationsThis study is cross‐sectional. Subjective judgment is involved in constructing the disclosure index.Practical implicationsThe observed level and pattern of disclosure of IC information suggests that the preparation of a sustainability report is an opportune starting point for the development of IC reporting.Originality/valueThe study highlights the determinants of IC disclosures in sustainability reports; the high incidence of such disclosures; and points to the enhancement of legitimacy and reputation as potential incentives for firms to engage in such practice.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyse company‐specific factors associated with adoption of risk‐based auditing. It seeks to explore the role of internal auditing in enterprise risk management (ERM).Design/methodology/approachFindings are drawn from a questionnaire survey, sent in 2006, to all 96 chief internal auditors who were members of the Institute of Portuguese Internal Auditors.FindingsIn planning an annual schedule of audits, the adoption of a risk‐based approach is statistically significant in international firms (p≤0.05) and companies listed on the Portuguese stock market (p≤0.10). There is a strong (but not significant) association between risk‐based annual audit planning and entities which are private, in the finance sector, and large. In planning each audit engagement, adoption of a risk‐based approach is correlated positively with entity size. Internal auditing is more proactive in the implementation of ERM in smaller organisations, and is more important in the finance industry and the private sector.Practical implicationsA better understanding emerges of factors associated with the adoption of risk‐based auditing, together with an enhanced appreciation of the role of internal auditing in ERM.Originality/valueThe paper reveals the specific characteristics of companies that are associated with the adoption of risk‐based approaches in the internal audit process. It is the first paper published about risk‐based internal auditing in Portugal.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the social responsibility disclosure (SRD) on the internet by Portuguese companies which are engaged in processes of obtaining or enhancing a good social responsibility reputation and are confident of having a good social performance pertaining to the human resources area – the best companies to work for (BCWF).Design/methodology/approachA matched pair approach is used to address the empirical question of whether the SRD on the internet of the BCWF differs from that of a benchmark group of companies selected by matching industry and size. Using a resource‐based perspective (RBP) the hypothesis that the BCWF disclose more social responsibility information is analysed.FindingsResults suggest that BCWF do disclose more items of social responsibility information than control companies, which allows thinking that companies which want to have a good social responsibility reputation and think that their social performance relating to their employees is good, recognize the need to use SRD also to influence their perception of its reputation.Research limitations/implicationsThe sample is small. There may be content analysis issues associated with subjectivity in the coding process and the use of a limited content analysis method.Originality/valueIt adds to the scarce research on SRD by Portuguese companies by providing new empirical data and extends prior research using RBPs.

This study, grounded in legitimacy theory (LT), examines social responsibility disclosure (SRD) on the Internet by Portuguese banks in 2004 and 2005. It compares these disclosures with those made in annual reports in 2003 and 2004. According to LT, companies with a higher public visibility are expected to exhibit greater concern to improve the corporate image through SRD. Size and industry affiliation are two of the most popular proxies for public visibility. By using companies from one industry this study explores size-related measures as proxies for public visibility. It analyses several size-related proxies and proposes a measure which has never been discussed in SRD studies: a spatial competition index based on the number of branches. Results suggest that the perspective adopted explains SRD by Portuguese banks and that the new measure proposed should be explored further in SRD empirical research.

This paper uses ordinal regression, structural equation modelling, and multivariate analysis techniques to investigate the preparedness to adopt IFRS that was exhibited by listed Portuguese companies in August 2003. We find the level of preparedness was significantly associated with company size, commercial internationalization, audit by a ‘Big 4’ accounting firm, and profitability. Our findings will help to indicate the pre-conditions that are likely to spur lagging companies (and countries) to prepare to implement IFRS.

This study compares the Internet (corporate web pages) and annual reports as media of social responsibility disclosure (SRD) and analyses what influences disclosure. It examines SRD on the Internet by Portuguese listed companies in 2004 and compares the Internet and 2003 annual reports as disclosure media. The results are interpreted through the lens of a multi-theoretical framework. According to the framework adopted, companies disclose social responsibility information to present a socially responsible image so that they can legitimise their behaviours to their stakeholder groups and influence the external perception of reputation. Results suggest that a theoretical framework combining legitimacy theory and a resource-based perspective provides an explanatory basis for SRD by Portuguese listed companies.

Amid the losses of library and archival records that were sustained in the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, the director-general of the national archive of Portugal, Manoel da Maya, played an inspirational role in salvage and preservation efforts. Maya’s determination, dedication, and resourcefulness in the aftermath of the earthquake were exemplary and in the best traditions of practice as an archivist.

The role of management accounting systems (MAS) in the construction of budgets in the public health sector has been one of the least studied topics in the international literature. Furthermore, several studies have confirmed the loss of relevance of traditional approaches to budgeting due to the need to implement techniques that are more performance-oriented. Since public hospitals are organisations that depend significantly on public funds, with substantial impacts on governments' budgets, the pressure for reducing expenditures is strong, causing increased difficulties in hospital management. In order to analyse the role of MAS in the preparation of hospital budgets, this chapter presents a literature review on this topic. This review allows to understand the loss of relevance of traditional budgeting techniques and to present alternative approaches. In this process, the implementation of different kinds of budgeting is heavily influenced by governments and professionals. Nevertheless, the research on this topic is still very scarce, evidencing the need to continue studying it.

This study explores the present-day dimensions of the international accounting history community with a focus on examining the formal (that is institutionalized) and informal (that is non-institutionalized) arrangements for accounting history in various countries and regions. Following a review of recent commentaries on the state of accounting history, the study elucidates the dimensions of the field where accounting history associations or special interest groups operate, comprising Australia and New Zealand, China, Italy, Japan, Portugal, Spain and the USA, and also depicts the informal arrangements in place for the accounting history community as identified in France and in the UK. The study is intended to enhance understanding of the nature, size and dynamics of this expanding group of scholars and to assist any future enquiries into the drivers of organizational success and the relative health of accounting history in the different jurisdictions.

PurposeThis paper aims to analyse two competing approaches to accounting for a firm's investment in staff‐training activities: the accounting and labour economics approach (which argues that no asset should be recognized from training activity); and the human resources management approach (which advocates recognition of an asset).Design/methodology/approachA case study analysis was conducted in two large Portuguese companies where human capital is said to be a critical factor of firm success. The authors used document analysis and interviews to help understand the training phenomenon from a company's point of view. This meant knowing of motivations, training programme curricula, training practices and expected benefits of training.FindingsThe paper identifies and defines two situations concerning a firm's investment in human capital training: one, where no asset (value) is generated; and the other, where the accounting definition of an asset, requiring value generation, is satisfied.Research limitations/implicationsCase studies possess the strength of specific instance detail and interpretation, and the ostensible weakness of interpretation of a small sample. But such research can provide for a reframing of conceptual perspectives. They can stimulate additional efforts to improve accounting and financial reporting.Practical implicationsA guideline system for firm investment in training was developed. This system allows different accounting treatments of a firm's investment in training activity. It proceeds on the basis of perceptions of whether training activity undertaken by a firm generates, or does not generate, value.Originality/valueThis paper provides a much‐needed case‐based empirical analysis of accounting and human capital arguments, and asset recognition arguments. It clarifies the situations in which an asset should be regarded as being generated by training expenditure.

This paper applies an innovative approach to explore the processes, effects and likely future progress of the convergence of national accounting standards with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). Particular use is made of the Hegelian dialectic concepts of thesis, antithesis and synthesis; notions of isomorphism and decoupling; and, to a lesser extent, Foucault's concept of power–knowledge. Factors that are likely to explain the extent, rhythm and pattern of convergence of national accounting standards with IFRS are discussed. The paper concludes by highlighting four matters that are thought likely to enhance understanding of the process of international accounting standards harmonization; and by averring that the international harmonization process is a dialectical process influenced by belief systems that are constructed in a context of isomorphism and decoupling.

This paper analyzes the determinants of disclosure level in the accounting for financial instruments of Portuguese listed companies. We have constructed an index of disclosure based on IAS 32 and 39 disclosure requirements and computed the index score for each company. Consequently, this study also analyzes the characteristics of companies that are closest to IAS before 2005. The analysis includes variables that capture intrinsic features of Portuguese companies and institutional regulatory context, such as capital structure and characteristics of the corporate governance structure, within contingency theory. We could not find significant influence of corporate governance structure and of financing structure. We conclude that disclosure degree is significantly related to size, type of auditor, listing status and to the economic sector. This research reveals areas for improvement of the Portuguese companies’ reporting practices and suggests areas for intervention of the Portuguese capital markets regulator in the context of mandatory IAS after 2005.