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The article examines the well-known poem by I. Brodsky “Pilgrims” (1958), and offers a new, in-depth interpretation of it. The authors of the work focus on the “second” version of Brodsky’s text, supplemented in 1959 with an epigraph from a sonnet by W. Shakespeare. Starting from the epigraphic lines, the authors of the article instead of the generally accepted interpretation of the poem (through the traditional motif of the pilgrim’s wanderings as the endless movement of a person through life) bring to the fore the image (post)Shakespeare’s pilgrims-thoughts, pilgrims-feelings. Changing the perspective of perception allows them to see deeper layers of Brodsky’s poem and re-interpret already familiar images and motifs. Thus, the title lexeme of the text — “pilgrims” — is explained; the “strange” image of the “blue sun”, interpreted by critics as an element “from science fiction”, is reinterpret-ed; the semantics of the motif of the modern “bar”, read by researchers “as a symbol of mysterious foreign luxury”, is explained; the “unexpected” quotation in the text of a poem by N. Nekrasov, unloved by Brodsky, analyzed and explained; etc. Identification of broad intertextual layers of “Pilgrims” — poems by K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, F. Sologub, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, M. Lokhvitskaya, etc. — allows the authors of the work to demonstrate the multiplied potential of the poem, to in-crease the intensity of the tragic understanding of the world by the lyrical hero of Brodsky.

The purpose of this article is to study the lexemes included in the descriptions of I. A. Bunin clothes, in different stories of the cycle “Dark Alleys”. The object is the lexemes used by Bunin to describe the clothes of the heroes. The subject is the creation of an image using such significant detail as the clothing. The material was the description of the clothes of the heroes and the lexemes used in them in all the texts of the cycle. Used for analysis lexemes contributing to the opposition of characters. As a result of the research, the author comes to the following conclusions. In the cycle of stories “Dark Alleys” I. A. Bunin uses common lexemes for clothing. But he uses diminutive forms, often in combination with the lexeme “cheap”, which gives these forms the meaning of something poor and miserable, which corresponds to the images created. The cycle features diverse characters. They are often opposed to each other. This also affects their clothes, with the help of which I. A. Bunin forms the image. In the descriptions of I. A. Bunin gives lexemes that contribute to the symbolic perception of heroes and events. Unusual lexemes for clothes were given by I. A. Bunin when describing the national dress of other peoples.

As a growing field of study within sign language linguistics, sign language lexicography faces many challenges that have already been answered for audio-oral language material. In this paper, we present some of these challenges and methods developed to help navigate the complex lexical classification field. The described methods and strategies are implemented in the first Czech sign language (ČZJ) online dictionary, a part of the platform Dictio, developed at Masaryk University in Brno. We cover the topic of lemmatisation and how to decide what constitutes a lexeme in sign language. We introduce four types of expressions that qualify for a dictionary entry: a simple lexeme, a compound, a derivative, and a set phrase. We address the question of the place of classifier constructions and shape and size specifiers in a dictionary, given their peculiar semantic status. We maintain the standard classification of classifiers (whole entity and holding classifiers) and size and shape specifiers (SASSes; static and tracing specifiers). We provide arguments for separating the category of specifiers from the category of classifiers. We discuss the proper treatment of mouthings and mouth gestures concerning citation forms, derivation and translation. We show why it is difficult in sign language to distinguish synonyms from variants and how our proposed phonological criteria can help. We explain how to construct a semantic definition in a sign language and what is the solution for multiple meanings of one form. We offer simple guidelines for forming proper examples of use in a sign language. And finally, we briefly comment on the process of the translation between sign and spoken languages. We conclude the paper with a summary of roles that Dictio plays in the ČZJ-signing community.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the oldest word-symbols, used to name animals: тур (bison), олень (єлень)(deer), лось (elk), вепр (wild pig), ведмідь (bear), віл (bull/bufallo), кінь (horse), змій (snake), павук (spider), and connected with the cosmogonic perceptions and beliefs of our ancestors. They are constituent parts of the mytho-poetic map of the world, reflected in the texts of folk songs. It has been specified that the notion “a folk poetic word-symbol” is a language symbol that has its individual sound form and reveals a constant associative connection with an object of the reality and a notion that is fixed in the mentality of the folklore bearers. A symbolic meaning has been considered as a derivational meaning of a word that appears as a result of strong associative connections. In the focus of the analysis is the fact that the names of wild animals – тур ‘bison’, олень (єлень) ‘deer’, лось ‘elk’, вепр ‘wild pig’, ведмідь ‘bear’ – combine such symbolic meanings as ‘strong physical strength’, ‘endurance’ and ‘space power’, that is why they are often endowed with supernatural extraordinary abilities. Thus, бик/віл (bull) and корова (cow), creators of the universe, are associated with the creation of the world. In the seasonal-ritual poetry the name коза (a female goat) conveys such symbolic meanings as ‘resurrection of an ancestor’, and ‘wealth/wellbeing’. Cosmogonic beliefs of our ancestors contributed to the linguistic descriptions of a диво-кінь (miracle horse), adding some extraordinary characteristics. A key lexeme кінь (horse) contains such semantic features as ‘space power’, ‘python’ – a medium between the world of the living and the dead, and ‘a transmitter of records’. Such fauna-symbols as ящур (lizard), змій (snake), and павук (spider) are associated with the lower layer of the world structure. Mythologemes ящур and змій(змія) reflect chthonic creatures, and actualize such symbolic meanings as ‘a master of the underground and underwater kingdoms’, ‘magic healing power’, but their semantics in modern texts of folk songs is often ambiguous. The name павук (spider) has also become a myth-symbol in the folklore with the meanings ‘a weaver, a founder of the world’.

The Persian lexeme pahrēz-, pahrēxtan (inf.), “to avoid, to abstain” and also “to care, to protect”, is found in Jewish, Christian, and Mandaic magical literature. It is also current in Mandaic works, and is found in some Geonic works in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. It has not yet been found in the Babylonian Talmud itself. In this article I discuss a recently discovered occurrence of this word in a reconstructed codex of chapters of Babylonian Talmud, found in the Cairo Genizah (GM). I begin with a reading of the talmudic sugiya. I then discuss other uses of pahrēz in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, in other dialects of Eastern Aramaic, and in Middle Persian. I end with a re-reading of the talmudic sugiya in GM in light of the meaning of pahrēz.

An overview and contextual-semantic analysis of the cases of usage the lexeme ‘gold’ (zaraniia-) and ‘silver’ (ərəzata-) in corpus of Avestan sources (Yasna, Yashts, Videvdat, Aogəmadaēca, etc.) are provided in the article. ‘Gold’ is used in the Avesta 101 times. ‘Silver’ — only 12 uses, while this metal is always contextually linked with gold. Silver has a semantic connection with the aquatic sphere. Gold is the material from which, according to the texts, the garments of several deities are made (Vayu, Aredvi Sura (partially)). Gold attributes or decorated with this metal tools have a number of gods and heroes (Yima, Mithra, Verethragna, Tishtria, Sraosha) are made completely or partially from it. In the myth of Yima, the divine instruments, the golden suβrā and gilded aštrā, are endowed with reproductive features and help to create the first kingdom (Videvdat 2.6—38). This ideal mythical world turns into the Afterworld. A set of semantic attributes show that gold is directly related to the Otherworld, where the souls of the righteous deceased receive gold places, golden or silver clothes (Videvdat 19.31—32; Aog. 12, 17). The fact that silver and other «colors» are added to gold may indicate the expansion of the spectrum of precious metals and their penetration into the sphere of funeral beliefs. In the treatise of Aogəmadaēca (84), silver-gold (a metaphor of wealth), along with cattle, horses and bravery, is included in the system of concepts related to the Thanatological worldview of the pre-Zoroastrian representations of ancient Iranian tribes.

[Resumo] Este traballo ten por obxectivo abordar a análise etimolóxica dos topónimos de base Sarand- (Sarandeses, Sarandín, Sarandón e Sarandós) e Serant- (Serantellos e Serantes). Para a análise do corpus bótase man das fontes existentes, refutando as diferentes propostas etimolóxicas en base á estrutura lingüística e á presenza documental de cada forma. A hipótese que aquí defendo é que todos estes topónimos teñen unha orixe común, que asenta nun antigo radical indoeuropeo especialmente produtivo en Galicia: *ser-, *sor- ‘fluír, discorrer’. [Abstract] The main aim of this paper is to analyze the etymology of the place names Serantes, Sarandós and their lexical family: Sarandeses, Sarandín, Sarandón, Sarandós, Serantellos and Serantes. Authorized sources are used for the analysis of the corpus, refuting the different etymological proposals based on the structure and documentary presence of each place name. I will try to show that all these place names have the same origin, which is an old european lexeme that abounds in Galicia: *ser-, *sor-, ‘to flow, to gush’.

This article is devoted to the analysis of the semantic structure of the common Turkic word “tortmoq” “pull, drag” on the example of factual materials recorded in the ancient Turkic, Old Turkic and Old Uzbek written monuments. The analysis showed that intralinguistic and extralinguistic factors, the possibilities of the Uzbek language in the process of expressing the meaning of this vocabulary, as well as the mastery of word usage by one author or another, played a certain role in the formation and development of the semantic scale of the lexeme. The conclusions can be used in enriching the point of view regarding semasiology, in improving the explanatory dictionary of the Uzbek language.Keywords: semantic structure, sema, core meaning, old Uzbek literary language, ambiguity, modern Uzbek literary language, synonymous nest, syntagmatic relationship

The article presents an attempt to formally construct a lexical-semantic field for the Chinese language, taking into account the fact that the concept of such a field presupposes a certain classification system of the vocabulary, which is divided into large and small groups ordered in relation to each other. Due to the presence in the Chinese language of a large number of copulative complexes, paradigmatic relations of semantic proximity are expressed in syntagmatic relations of juxtaposition, which allowed the authors of the article to construct semantic fields based on the data of normative dictionaries and vocabulary lists. This article presents formal methods for constructing a semantic field for the modern Chinese language, a semantic method for fixing the language. It is based on a graphical representation of combinations of symbols (synographic images) and their explanations in dictionaries and wordlists of the modern Chinese language. As typical examples, the sphere of designations of emotions and verbs with the meanings of purchase and sale was chosen. The article defines the features of the structure of the lexical-semantic field of the verbs of sale and purchase, reveals the lexical units that are included in the core, near and far periphery. The material presented in the article indicates that in the case of the Chinese language, a similar method of constructing a lexical-semantic field can be applied both to tokens with an abstract meaning and to tokens with a specific meaning.

This article deals with the problem of discourse designing of the negative image of Russia in Spanish mass media using metaphorical models with the target domain “Russia”. Within the framework of this study, a metaphorical model is defined as a mental scheme of connections between different conceptual domains, which is formed and fixed in the minds of native speakers. The material includes Spanish articles from reputable sources (El País and BBC News in Spanish) mentioning Russia (over 500,000 characters in total). With the use of discourse, corpus and lexical-semantic analysis as well as conceptual analysis of metaphorical models, the author found that the negative image of Russia is constructed in Spanish political media discourse through the following metaphorical models: “Russia is the country of Putin”, “Russia is the heir to the USSR” and “Russia is a pseudo-saviour of the world”. The following frames can be distinguished within the structure of the model “Russia is the country of Putin”: 1) Russia belongs to Putin; 2) Putin is a lifelong president; 3) Putinism is an ideology of Russian citizens. The metaphorical model “Russia is the heir to the USSR” includes the following stereotypical scenarios: 1) authoritarian, undemocratic methods of governance; 2) “Soviet” way of living; 3) backward economy. The frame that exists within the model “Russia is a pseudo-saviour of the world” actualizes the scenario of providing humanitarian aid for show. Among the lexical and grammatical representatives of these metaphorical models are the following: prepositional construction with de and the proper name Putin; adjectives with the semes “infinitely long, eternal” and “entire”; adjectives containing semes of distance/separateness; lexeme soviético, etc. The nominative field of the considered image contains both direct nominations, represented by the toponyms Rusia, Moscú and Kremlin, and metaphors that are mainly related to the size of the state. The stereotypical features of the source domain make it possible to create a negative image of Russia as an authoritarian, undemocratic state with an almost monarchical system, outdated Soviet governance methods, saviour-ofthe-world ambitions, and ostentatious behaviour in the international arena.

The purpose of the study in the article is to identify the components of the psycholinguistic portrayal of the traitor in the Ukrainian artistic prose of the second half of the twentieth century. Materials & Methods. Elements of component analysis, method of classification, discourse analysis, content analysis, as well as lexico-semantic, associative methods were applied in the article and on the basis of these methods it has been provided the analysis of the images of the movie story «Ukraine in Fire» by O. Dovzhenko, the novel «House over a torso» by I. Kachurovsky, the novel «Whirlwind» by Yu. Mushketyk, the novel «The ground under the hooves» by V. Drozd). Results. It is considered the place of traitor images in the structure of literary works. The emphasis is placed on the dynamics of their development within the artistic time space. The focus is also made on the psycholinguistic markers forming the hero’s/antihero’s portrait in the creative work. Comparison of the methods of designing the image of the traitor at different levels of organization of the artistic text in all the analyzed works is carried out. Conclusions. It has been found that the psycholinguistic content of the traitor character type is directly dependent on the author's self-esteem model. The external evaluation, as a rule, remains stable. The description of the traitor’s psychological portrait in all cases shows the displacement of the axiological vector, the change of the poles of the opposition “one’s own – another’s”. In general in the Ukrainian military prose of the second half of the twentieth century the linguistic-psychological portraits of the traitor-gadget, traitor-freak and traitor-punisher are most vividly presented. However, there are other models.

The problem of conceptualization of the lexeme "business" in the process of teaching a foreign language is considered on the example of MGIMO Odintsovo branch (Moscow region). Authors present a study of the conceptualization of the content of education in the process of learning foreign language by students of nonlinguistic training directions in the conditions of implementation of the current Federal state educational standard of higher education 3++ (bachelor's and master's levels) implemented in the educational process of educational institutions of the Ministry of foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. The methods of working with the concept are described and the algorithm of work is developed, which was successfully tested on the basis of the Institute. The materials of the proposed study, which were made by the national corpus of the English language, authentic textbooks and educational sites, are analyzed. These materials allow students to comprehensively and comprehensively study the concept of "business", and teachers to update the content of education. The communicative orientation of the process of learning a non native language contributes to a comprehensive analysis of this concept from the point of view of the native culture and the culture of the studied language. Proposed basic principles of designing of educational process of the subject: 1) study of the first semester of practice-oriented interpretation in order to fit the specifics of the concept; 2) dialogical process of practicebased communication in a second language in the study of the concept; 3) implementation of scientific-research work of students based on the application of the original literature. The developed algorithm involves the use of various forms of active work of students on the development of the concept: individual, pair and group. The algorithm includes three stages of work: construction of associograms, fixing the concept space and comparison. It is established that the proposed form of work with the concept is aimed not only at the development of educational motivation of students, but also to improve the level of foreign language proficiency of students and foreign language communicative competence.

The Polish word szerować and its expressive stabilityThe purpose of this article is to evaluate the expressive and emotional characteristics of the word szerować, in the meaning “share something on social media”. In the first part of the paper, I analyze the situational context related to Internet and corporate communication. Next, I look at the etymology of the word, dictionary and contextual meanings of the lexeme based on analysis of the content of electronic dictionaries. I also present the results of a survey which was conducted for the purposes of this article. Finally, I will verify its word-formation structure, determine the values in the word and assign basic emotions to it.

The article presents a semi-automatic method for the construction of word-formation networks focusing particularly on derivation. The proposed approach applies a sequential pattern mining technique to construct useful morphological features in an unsupervised manner. The features take the form of regular expressions and later they are used to feed a machine-learned ranking model. The network is constructed by applying the learned model to sort the lists of possible base words and selecting the most probable ones. This approach, besides relatively small training set and a lexicon, does not require any additional language resources such as a list of vowel and consonant alternations, part-of-speech tags etc. The proposed approach is evaluated on lexeme sets of four languages, namely Polish, Spanish, Czech, and French. The conducted experiments demonstrate the ability of the proposed method to construct linguistically adequate word-formation networks from small training sets. Furthermore, the performed feasibility study shows that the method can further benefit from the interaction with a human language expert within the active learning framework.

The article is devoted to one of the most acute problems of modern society — gender inequality. The author analyzes the state of the Spanish and Latin American society through the prism of the lexeme micromachism and its function in speech. The interest in the linguistic and lexical-semantic analysis of the word micromachism is triggered by the wide use of the word in the periodical press in Spanish, as well as the direct interconnection of the lexeme and the problem of violence against women in the modern Spanish-speaking society. The meaning of the word micromachism and its correct use in speech were firstly described in the recommendations of the Spanish Foundation BBVA — an organization dedicated to the popularization of the Spanish language, and also seeking to improve the Spanish language of the mass media. Later, the word among 11 other nominees was nominated for the title of “word of the year”. Despite the fact that it did not become a winner, it attracted the attention of linguists, sociologists, and journalists to the problem of the functioning of micromachism in modern Spanish speech. The main research materials are the corpus of the Spanish language, explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of neologisms and banks of lexical data. An analysis of texts from periodicals to identify the frequency of use of the lexeme micromachism carried out by the author confirms the official statistics of abuse of women in some countries of Latin America and Spain. As for the Russian language, the author in his study addresses only the National Corpus of the Russian language and explanatory dictionaries to reveal how often the lexical unit is used in the Russian language and whether it is recoded in dictionaries. The author does not aim to study the situation of gender inequality in Russia and its reflection in the language. In addition to the widespread illumination of the problem in the periodical press in Spanish, the phenomenon of micromachism is actively studied in the scientific field, which once again confirms the severity of the problem in modern society.

If to concern the questions of modern Ukrainian spiritual space and, in particular, concepts of emotional, intellectual, and cultural spheres, the lists of key concepts will certainly include such words as “people”, “community”, “citizen”, “father”, “respect”, “duty”, “resilience”, “holy shrine”, “holy order”, “basis”, “praise”, “glory”, “to magnify”, “wisdom”, “village”, “home”, “gift”, “food”, “healing”, and many others. Each real Ukrainian nowadays would probably agree with this statement. However, only few intellectuals are able to elaborate on the origin of these terms. And as for the age of the above mentioned terms, only single connoisseurs would be able to correctly identify it. The same will be observed if to name less significant language units of the Ukrainian lexicon. Huge clusters of the Ukrainian-language concepts, including conceptual terms, even now, in the first quarter of the 21st century, constitute the category of orphans. However, the author has established that the origin of the above mentioned words must be searched for in the ancient Hurrian language. Thus, Ukrainian must be considered one of the direct descendants of this prehistoric language, forgotten by all and dead for three thousand years. Modern dictionaries of the Ukrainian language give such a name of this prehistoric ethnic group: Hurrians. However, we find this form of writing in Ukrainian awkward. After all, the world’s lead orientalists claim today that the lexeme “Hurrian” (this is the correct form of conveying the name of the specified people in Ukrainian) has derived from the Akkadian geographic appellation Ḫurri and its ethnic derivative Ḫurri. According to the cuneiform texts on clay tablets, discovered by archaeologists at different times, this name was well known to other peoples of the ancient Near East. The name “Hurrian” can be found in the then (prehistoric) documents of royal archives: compare the Hittite “ᵁᴿᵁḪur-ri” (used for the first time by the ruler Ḫattušiliš I) and Ugaritic “ḫry”. We should also mention Hurrian “ᴷᵁᴿḪur-ru-u-ḫé” and “ᴷᵁᴿḪur-wu-u-ḫé”; Egyptian “Ḫu-ru” (used for the first time by Pharaoh Thutmose III). The Egyptian rendering of this name was “Ḫʒ-rw”. It is also found in their written records. The Hurrian form of the name shows that the ethnonym is built on the root “ḫur-”. This can be said, incidentally, about the ethnonym “Croats”. The author will return to this topic in his next research.

Introduction. To understand and essentially conceive the epic text of the Ja n g a r it is definitely instrumental to examine specific features of its lexical structure. Goals. The work seeks to provide a linguistic analysis of lexemes denoting different clothing items and traced throughout the epic narrative. M ethods. The study employs the contextual and statistical methods, dictionary entry and valency analyses. Results. The conducted analysis makes it possible to identify and restore meanings of lexemes of the cluster ‘Clothes’, and specifically those denoting outer garments. Conclusions. The etymology of the lexeme y ^ ‘(fur) coat’ is restored within the Turkic language framework, the latter containing common Turkic stems *icuk ‘coat covered with fabric, (fur) coat with a covering’. The lexeme дах ‘dokha’ also proves an ancient Turkic borrowing: the noun ja yq u with the initial meaning ‘rain coat’ was borrowed into Mongolian as daku ‘fur coat with pelage set on the outside’. Subsequently, the word was borrowed from Kalmyk into Russian: доха ‘saiga fur coat with pelage set on the outside’. In modern Kalmyk, the lexeme девл is defined as ‘shuba, winter garment’. But the Ja n g a r epic employs the lexeme in two meanings: 1) ‘winter outer garment of furred skin, shuba, overcoat’, 2) ‘braided cover, surface coating’.

Introduction. The study continues a series of works seeking to evaluate materials contained in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Language of the Jangar Epic. Goals. The article examines the role and functions, analyzes definitions of the lexeme ha3p / yazr ‘earth, ground’ included into the word list of the Explanatory Dictionary. M aterials. A total of 28 different Jangar epic texts recorded at different times have been investigated. R esults. The Jangar epic employs the lexeme ha3p in the meaning of ‘earth, land, ground’ and related ones, such as ‘terrestrial area’, ‘territory’, ‘path’, ‘domain’, ‘distance’, ‘place’. When used in its key meaning, the lexeme ha3p ‘earth, land, ground’ largely occurs in word combinations related to geographical and agricultural terms, steppe or desert landscapes. The phrase э щ го ha3p (эщ гэ hasp) ‘deserted land’ illustrates an important feature of the steppe — its peopleless nature. The word ha3p also co-occurs in phrases with sacral meanings (ha3p дунд ‘amid the Earth’, ha3p, тенгрин киисн ‘center of Earth and Heaven’). The lexeme is also most frequently used in duration formulas that may possess chronotopos properties, with time acting as a measure of duration and length. The contraposition of own land to alien ones as a reflection of universal, fundamental opposition us — them is manifested in the combinations хэр hasp ‘alien land’, хэрин ик ha3p ‘remote outland’.

A comprehensive analysis of the word тайна (“mystery”) and its image in Anna Akhmatova’s art demonstrates how insistently Akhmatova created an aura of mystery around her life. The intentional duality of her birth date; the modelling of the image of her childhood as a period when she became aware of her otherness; the legend of a precocious gift of vision and foresight, which is relevant to the image of Akhmatova’s persona (Cassandra – Moon Maiden – enchantress –Chingisidess) and is also associated with the main spheres of her poetry: antiquity, the magical power of poetry, and history. The article identifies the actualisation of “Akhmatova’s mystery” in different aspects: biographical, personally identificatory, and poetical proper. Rigorous linguistic analysis involving corpus-based data makes it possible to establish the special position the word тайна plays in Anna Akhmatova’s vocabulary and provide a justification of its status as an idioglossia. The word тайна in Akhmatova’s poems organizes a wide thematical and associative field around itself, whose units are frequently used and assume an individual significance. The poems contain all meanings of the lexeme тайна that are used in the language system, and all the lexical-semantic variants are consolidated by the seme “unknown information”. The invariant meaning of the word тайна is attributed to the opposition “knowledge – ignorance”. The semantic complex of the lexeme in poetry is also strengthened by the meaning “arcane knowledge, involvement in mystery, and reaching the truth”. It is established that the lexically invariable image of тайна, which can also be seen as a leitmotif, is found in all the themes conceptually significant for Akhmatova: destiny, art, and love. Only on one occasion is the image of mystery not marked by a word but instead grows out of the atmosphere of the poem, which is conterminous to secret fear and mystical terror. Secret as something irrational, inexplicably horrifying is almost certainly commonly found in poems about time and space, where the poet’s daily life takes place. The fear of enclosed space and swift-flowing time is empowered by life circumstances, in which the poet’s creative expression of will is materialised. This fear is born out of the primary knowledge of limits, beyond which a human being is not allowed to go. The analysis of the word тайна and its image in the poet’s art leads the authors to conclude that the externally austere, but internally counterintuitive harmony of Anna Akhmatova’s poetry is created along the fine line between the impermissible and the unrestricted, the secret and the explicit, the mystical and the rational.

The article researches linguistic poetics. It reflects the next stage of work on the creation of the author's dictionary describing the word usage of A. Blok in the collection Poems about a Beautiful Lady. The reader is offered a detailed description of the semantics of lexemes that make up the opposition “LIGHT-DARKNESS” in this collection. When interpreting, the author uses the method of gradual expansion of the context from the level of collocations to the level of a complete work, which allows us to determine the set of semantemes used by A. Blok for each lexeme under study, to characterize combinatorial increments of meaning, to identify cases of words used in the author's meaning. Methods of immanent analysis of poetic speech are used. The description of the semantics of words included in the lexical-semantic group “DARKNESS” is carried out for the first time. The author concludes that the symbolism of light and darkness in the collection, although based on tradition, is still idiosyncratic. Light is an attribute of a Beautiful Lady. It symbolizes the meeting with the beloved, sacred knowledge, revelation. Darkness is associated with loneliness, end of passion, death, madness. But light and darkness can be both opposed and connected to each other through the image of the mystical beloved of the lyrical hero. The attribute of a Beautiful Lady is not only light, but also twilight. But if the light marks the appearance of Eternal Femininity in the world in full force, then the twilight precedes this phenomenon.

The article is devoted to the agrarian terminology of the German and Uzbek languages, their formation, linguistic analysis, linguistic and cultural features and their place in the terminological system.

The object of the analysis is the way of creating commercial utterances and functional names in which the formal indicator is the dialectal lexeme gryfnie recognized as a fashionable component of Polish language of consumption. According to the communicative practice of the creators of cultural texts, the use of the gryfny component valorizes products, identifies service objects, assesses offers and highlights the speakers of the language living in the Upper Silesia region. The analytical material coming from the advertisements spread by media and on the Internet was described from the perspective of cultural linguistics and pragmalinguistics. The references to cognitive conception of meaning fields were made taking into account the appropriate methodological solutions and the complex polisystem of commercial conditions.

Purpose: The article deals with the principles of selection of factual material on the problem of fixing language invariants and variants. Methodology: This is an analytic-dialectical research in which the data was obtained through the analysis of language and grammar in English texts. Main Findings: As a result of using the system-object method of knowledge representation, a model for securing language variants is constructed. The UFO model of the organizational system can act as a network, production, and frame models. In conclusion, only the internal flows are of interest at the level of the function description, since the algebra of images of the theory of patterns and the theory of graphs are involved in external flows. Applications: This article can be used by regional schools, cultural organizations and universities. Novelty/Originality: In this research, a level model of language invariants and variants was developed and presented. Statistical accounting methods, linguistic and computer modeling methods were used on this model.

The article explores lexical units denoting colour in English. The study focuses on colour lexemes in a literary text in terms of their combining potential, structure, and stylistic properties. The undertaken analysis of 11 basic colour lexemes (black, white, grey, red, blue, orange, yellow, green, purple, pink, brown) testifies to their combinability with twelve thematic word-groups that denote: appearance, footgear, dress, headgear, fauna, flora, parts of the body, natural phenomena, objects, magic, substances, food. Sixteen non-basic colour lexemes (sallow, auburn, blank, swarthy, silver, livid, scarlet, gold / golden, blond, amber, emerald, aquamarine, violet, lilac, turquoise, crimson) demonstrate combinability with only five thematic word-groups: appearance, objects, magic, dress, substances. The prevailing usage of the basic colour lexeme black and non-basic colour lexeme gold / golden is explained by the general magical atmosphere created by J. K. Rowling in the novels featuring adventures of the young sorcerer Harry Potter. The analysis of word-building specificity of colour lexemes proves that compounding of the pattern Adj+Adj ( white-blond; golden-brown; light-blue ) is the predominant way of their formation. Stylistic devices involving colour lexemes in the analysed literary texts are used with the aim to enhance the expressiveness of the narrative pieces, provide additional characteristics to the people and objects described, produce a humorous effect, and arrange the rhythmical pattern of the utterances. Rowling’s choice of certain colour lexemes is illustrative of her individual author’s style.

Linguistic categories were developed as tools for describing language systems and making them easier to learn. However, like many theoretical con­cepts and systems, they do not fully represent the real world and, in some cases, seek to imprison linguistic units within a well-ordered system – a procrustean bed as it were. Besides, although the most general categories are universal, the lower-ranking ones are often language-specific. Idiom (or phraseologism) is a very unclear linguistic concept, subject to never-ending debate. However, a strict adherence to categorisation is observable in practical bilingual lexico­graphy and phraseography. This may lead to unwanted compartmentalisation and a skewed product. The conventional practice in bilingual lexicography is to provide B-language idiom equivalents or analogues for A-language idioms and B-language lexical items for A-language words. B-language idioms are not normally provided for A-language words and vice versa. This reflects thinking in terms of structures, rather than of semantic equivalence. The sharp demarcation of structures in dictionaries erects needless barriers by imposing the theoretical concepts of idiom, compound, derivative and metaphorical lexical item on to practical lexicography. The phrase-compound-derivative-idiom divide is often quite arbitrary and changes over time. Moreover, the only functional equivalent for a word is often an idiom and vice versa.

The article explores the problem of interpreting the lexemes “formation,” “etude,” and “education of in lexico-semantic field “Higher education.” This issue is topical because of the intensification of academic exchanges, and therefore the need for translations, and of frequent education reforms that lead to changes in terminology. There is a brief description of modeling the lexico-semantic field “Higher education” in French and Russian using the T-Lab computer program for automatic text processing and its linguistic and statistical analysis tools. The corpus of texts taken from the sites of leading French and Russian universities (24,000 words each) was analyzed. Associative fields of terms in question were obtained and minimal contexts illustrating their use were extracted. The problem of the multivaluedness of the terms “formation,” “etude,” and “education” is considered in detail. Their abstractness makes it difficult to interpret them. A comparison was made between their functioning within fields, and difficulties in understanding certain concepts were identified. In particular, the “formation” lexeme is the most universal in meaning: it means “education, training” and “educational program”; the lexeme “education” means “education, socialization, all-round education,” and the lexeme “etude” means “learning process.” We conclude that the high degree of abstractness of these terms and the lack of order within the terminology makes it difficult to understand the texts about education in French, and also to translate them into Russian.

The article is devoted to the research of the Bashkir cultural linguistics, which as the new direction of cognitive linguistics is considered synthesis of formation of national language and culture. The language picture of the world in linguistics considers them as spiritual and moral values of the separate nation. In the linguistics of XX century the language not only unit of communication, but also a key of knowledge of culture of each nation, the instrument of creation of culture, an element of preservation and transfer from generation to generation. The language develops along with culture, having reflected cultural values of the nation. Such idea is put in cultural linguistics from the moment of its formation. The cultural science, in particular, studies knowledge in the field of sciences relating the nature, society, history, art, etc.; knowledge of language is reflection of language in various models of outlook, consciousness of certain nation. Thus, the objective of research is the linguocultural analysis of concepts “Father” («Ата») and “Son” (“Ул”) in modern Bashkir linguistics on material of the literary work “Salavat” of Mustay Karim. On the basis of the analysis it is possible to define the language national picture of the world of the Bashkir nation. The concept as common cultural component helps to reveal culturological language means and lexemes of the Bashkir cultural linguistics. The scientific novelty is defined by the fact that in the Bashkir linguistics the picture of conceptual values is still not created defining sphere of concepts of Bashkir language. In this direction cultural linguistics and cognitive lexicon in the course of formation and development.

Presentamos aquí dos diccionarios electrónicos de nombres en quechua, uno con traducción al español y otro, al francés. Cada lexema incluye sus propiedades sintáctico-semánticas y su correspondiente paradigma flexional FLX. Después de hacer un inventario de los sufijos nominales, muestro la manera cómo hemos construido la matriz fundamental que rige la morfología nominal del quechua, comenzando por aglutinación binaria de estos sufijos. Luego presentamos el método para obtener las gramáticas racionales que nos permitan generar, automáticamente, usando la plataforma lingüística NooJ, todas las formas nominales conteniendo dos o más sufijos. Luego mostramos cómo, aplicando a un pequeño texto quechua, interrogaciones en formato NooJ se obtienen las correspondencias de las formas nominales reconocidas en ese texto, flexionadas o no, y cómo, enseguida se las puede visualizar gráficamente, en colores, sobre ese texto, obteniéndose un alto índice de reconocimiento (94%), que prueba el grado de precisión de nuestras gramáticas.

Probabilistic topic models are extensively used to better understand the content of documents. Due to the fact that topic models are totally unsupervised, statistical and data driven, they may produce topics not always meaningful. This work is based on the hypothesis that, since LDA takes into account the number of occurrences of words, we could affect the quality of topics by semantically normalising the text, where each concept would be represented by the same word. We can find a formal description of lexemes found in text using a knowledgebase and extract the several forms of mentioning a lexeme to normalize a corpus. We use topic coherence metric, as it represents the semantic interpretability of the terms used to describe a particular topic, to quantify the influence of semantic corpus normalisation in topics. The first tests on the semantic normalisation framework of texts showed prominent results, and shall be investigated in depth in future.

The article deals with the analyses of the headline linguistic constructions of French political articles, including euphemisms, presented in such modern mass media in France and Belgium as «Le Monde», «Le Monde diplomatique», «L'OBS», «L'Express», «La Libre», «Marianne», «L'Opinion». Currently, journalists consider euphemizing to be a common feature of the headlines of the articles concerning political issues. This technique effects readers’ emotions smoothly. Implementation of euphemisms in French articles of journalistic genre helps avoid mentioning unpleasant or even shocking reality. The enhancement technique is used in the case a lexeme of positive meaning replaces a negative phenomenon or fact. The examples, given in this article, highlight the manipulative nature of euphemisms, which is specific for the French political press style. Recipients should be informed about political issues, but occasionally the authorities and the media provide them with facts in a specific manner not to cause strong, sometimes premature confusion and discontent.

Before the Semitic fragments of 4QTobit were found at Qumran, the 4th-century Greek GI version of Tobit was thought to be original and was regarded as ‘a lesson on almsgiving and its redeeming powers’. In his presentation of the 4Q196–4Q199 (Aramaic) and 4Q200 (Hebrew) fragments of Tobit, Fitzmyer, in 1995, reconstructed and rendered the Semitic lexeme צדקה (literally, ‘righteousness’) as ‘almsgiving’, as in Mishnaic Hebrew. He referred mainly to the 4th-century Common Era Greek and Old Latin versions. The hypothesis of this article is that the Aramaic lexeme צדק may not yet have had the meaning of ‘almsgiving’ in the original composition; thus, the original authorial intention may be masked in Fitzmyer’s presentation. Therefore, the emphasis on almsgiving for ultimate personal gain found in the later copies of Tobit may be a secondary, reductionist application by subsequent scribes of the lexeme צדקה. To test this hypothesis, the relevant reconstructions and English translations as ‘almsgiving’ of the Semitic copies of Tobit found at Qumran are examined and reconsidered. In the beginning of the narrative, in 4Q196 (and in GI and GII) the rather self-righteous Tobit is ‘accidentally’ blinded while performing an act of charity to his own kin, which he believed was the way to gain righteousness and thus be rewarded by God. In the end, when he has recovered his sight, Tobit redefines the way to achieve true righteousness: to bless God and extol his majesty to all nations with truthfulness in heart and soul.Contribution: The comparison of the Semitic fragments from Qumran with the Septuagint versions suggests that the first reconstructions and translations of 4QTobit may have been overly influenced by the long-standing Greek versions. Whereas the Greek versions tend to emphasise almsgiving as a means to gain righteousness, the older Aramaic versions tend to highlight righteousness and truthfulness as the primary value.

User generated software documents (e.g. app reviews, bug reports, developer emails, code comment, etc) often contain a sense of purpose, or intent. They would help the analyst in categorizing, in assigning suitable resources, or in further extracting important information (e.g. user opinions in reviews). However, recent studies were using mostly human effort to extract and encode linguistic patterns to detect such intents from very specific domains (i.e. app reviews and developer emails). In this work, we formalize the problem statement of multi-intent classification for user generated software documents, and propose a Fuzzy Multi-Intent Classifier that can train a classification model on annotated text examples to predict intents using fuzzy logic on matched intent patterns. Our classifier utilizes the novel concept of Lexeme Sequence Pattern which can approximately match to similar text without having a human to encode its Parse Tree. We evaluated our approach against 6 common classification algorithms and out-performed them.

Analogy is assumed to be the cognitive mechanism speakers resort to in order to inflect an unknown form of a lexeme based on knowledge of other words in a language. In this process, an analogy is formed between word forms within an inflectional paradigm but also across paradigms. As neural network models for inflection are typically trained only on lemma-target form pairs, we propose three new ways to provide neural models with additional source forms to strengthen analogy-formation, and compare our methods to other approaches in the literature. We show that the proposed methods of providing a Transformer sequence-to-sequence model with additional analogy sources in the input are consistently effective, and improve upon recent state-of-the-art results on 46 languages, particularly in low-resource settings. We also propose a method to combine the analogy-motivated approach with data hallucination or augmentation. We find that the two approaches are complementary to each other and combining the two approaches is especially helpful when the training data is extremely limited.

Lexica distinguishing all morphologically related forms of each lexeme are crucial to many language technologies, yet building them is expensive. We propose a frugal paradigm completion approach that predicts all related forms in a morphological paradigm from as few manually provided forms as possible. It induces typological information during training which it uses to determine the best sources at test time. We evaluate our language-agnostic approach on 7 diverse languages. Compared to popular alternative approaches, ours reduces manual labor by 16-63% and is the most robust to typological variation.

We propose a novel morphologically aware probability model for bilingual lexicon induction, which jointly models lexeme translation and inflectional morphology in a structured way. Our model exploits the basic linguistic intuition that the lexeme is the key lexical unit of meaning, while inflectional morphology provides additional syntactic information. This approach leads to substantial performance improvements—19% average improvement in accuracy across 6 language pairs over the state of the art in the supervised setting and 16% in the weakly supervised setting. As another contribution, we highlight issues associated with modern BLI that stem from ignoring inflectional morphology, and propose three suggestions for improving the task., Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, ISBN:978-1-952148-27-9

The article discusses the applicability of prototype theory and the theory of semantic fields for the analysis of category structure. The analysed empirical material consisted of German lexemes denoting Headgear. The first part of the article compares the theoretical assumptions of both prototype and lexical field theories. A category analysed from the structural perspective is built of elements that are all equal to one another. They all posses the same set of features called archilexeme content. Thus there are no better and no worse members of such a category. As opposed to this the prototype theory assumes that a fundament and reference point of a given category is the prototype -the category's best example. All the remaining category members take the places within the category depending on their similarity to the prototype. Within this theory we can therefore speak of grades of membership as well as of grades of representability. The second part of the article discusses the means used for the realisation of the analysis as well as its results. To present the results in short: the position of a prototype takes the lexeme Hut" (hat) and the whole category seems to consist of a few smaller ones included within the superior category. Thus the category structure seems to be in accordance with the assumptions of the prototype theory. The prototype as the best example was often used to create names for objects that the questioned did not know. The indirect relation between the name and the object of language extern reality found its confirmation in the question concerned with the objects features. It was not possible for people to name any features if they can not call the representation of the object. As a result many of the given words came out with no features whatsoever. The final conclusion coming out of the analysis is that the prototype theory is more proper a tool for describing the structure of natural categories whereas the structural principles' application can only be the artificial categories.

In spite of the rapid development of textual corpora along with that of the tools of processing them, many potential users are not fully aware of their utility for solving a wide range of text formulating problems. Beyond a quite straightforward strategy such as usage of asterisks and checking out collocations, the modern corpus tools are characterised by a high potential in solving also a wide range of semantic issues regarding grammar and vocabulary. Knowing the usage of search masks, part-of-speech, morphological and semantic tags are of great help in formulating pertinent queries. Although the semantic tagging in actual corpora is quite rare, it is a very promising feature; its application is still hindered by polysemy of semantic tags. Before being “translated” into a formal query language, a logical solution should be found on the basis of formal properties of linguistic signs by applying analysis of distributional (colligational and collocational) potentiality, substitution, calque, and morphological analysis. Substitution allows to extrapolate properties from one unit to another within the same semantic group; distribution offers the possibility to unveil several semantic components in the context, and, vice versa, to find out an expected lexeme by its hypothetical surrounding; calque is a powerful tool within the trial and error strategy for finding potential equivalents; analysis of frequency is helpful at the stage of results’ interpretation and evaluation of their reliability. Combination of these methods allows users to solve orthographic, punctuation, morphological, syntactic and lexical problems arising either in monolingual communication, translation or perform data mining. Попри стрімкий розвиток корпусів текстів та знарядь для їхнього опрацювання, багато потенційних користувачів не повною мірою усвідомлюють і використовують потенціал корпусів у розв'язанні широкого кола проблем на етапі формулювання текстів. Окрім можливості доволі елементарного застосування (використання символу-зірочки замість пропущених символів або простої перевірки сполучуваності словоформ), сучасні корпуси характеризуються набором корисних функцій для розв’язання широкого кола і семантико-граматичних, і лексико-семантичних проблем. Вміння використовувати маски пошуку, частиномовну, морфологічну і семантичну розмітку може стати вартісною допомогою у формулювання запитів. На етапі перед формулюванням запиту необхідно знайти логічне розв’язання проблеми на основі формальних властивостей мовних знаків та аналізу дистрибуції (як колігації, так і колокації), субституції, кальки та морфологічного аналізу. Метод субституції дозволяє проводити екстраполяцію властивостей однієї одиниці на іншу одиницю з подібної семантичної групи; метод дистрибуції дає змогу виявляти окремі семантичні компоненти в контексті і, навпаки, віднаходити відповідну лексему за її оточенням; калька є цінним знаряддям стратегії спроб і помилок для пошуку потенційних еквівалентів у перекладі; аналіз частоти вживання корисний на етапі інтерпретації результатів та оцінювання їхньої достовірності. Поєднання зазначених методів дозволяє користувачеві розв’язувати орфографічні, пунктуаційні, морфологічні, синтаксичні і лексичні проблеми під час формулювання текстів як в одномовному спілкуванні, так і під час перекладу, а також здійснювати добування даних за допомогою корпусів.

Nonverbal communication is the process of sending and receiving messages between two or more people without the use of words. We can communicate in a variety of nonverbal ways including our posture, gestures, facial expressions, touch, eye contact, and intonation. Research suggests that nonverbal communication makes up over 60-70% of all that we communicate. In other words, how we say something is often more important than what we say.Paralanguage is considered to be one of the components of non-verbal communication, which goes beyond the specific spoken words. It includes pitch, amplitude, rate, and voice quality of speech. Paralanguage reminds us that people convey their feelings not only in what they say, but also in how they say it.The present research paper is devoted to the study of the verbalization of paralanguage as the component of non-verbal communication in English.The topicality of the paper is preconditioned by the general orientation of modern linguistics on the analysis of the ways and means a language possesses for the nomination of different properties of speech which, in their turn, proved to be an important means of non-verbal communication. The aimof the research is to provide an analysis of language units, used for the nomination of paralanguage components of communication in Modern English. The subject of the inves- tigation is represented by the analysis of language units used for the verbilazation of paralanguage elements. The object of the research is lexical units verbalizing paralanguage components of non-verbal communication in Modern English. Primary attention is focused on the analyses of the lexemes representing different properties of the voice. As far as paralanguage con- siders the acoustic properties of the voice, we have considered the functioning of the lexemes, which in combination with the adverbs also demonstrate a variety of feelings and emotions of the speakers. We have also fixed lexical units used to verbalize shouting, crying, laughing.The acoustic aspect of voice found the reflection in such units as: to grumble, to murmur, to sniff, to twang etc. In the course of the analysis we have also fixed lexical units used for the nomination even of the absence of speech. Being the component of paralanguage silence finds its manifestation in a number of lexical units, each of which demonstrates certain functional characteristics.