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Despite their limited area relative to the global ocean, coastal zones—the regions where land meets the sea—play a disproportionately important role in generating ecosystem services. However, coastal ecosystems are under increasing pressure from human populations. In particular, urban stormwater is an increasingly important threat to the integrity of coastal systems. Urban catchments exhibit altered flow regimes that impact ecosystem processes and coastal foodwebs. In addition, urban stormwater contains complex and unpredictable mixtures of chemicals that result in a multitude of lethal and sublethal impacts on species in coastal systems. Along the western coast of the United States, we estimate that hundreds of billions of kilograms of suspended solids flow off land surfaces and enter the Northern California Current each year. However, 70% of this pollution could be addressed by treating only 1.35% of the land area. Determining how to prioritize treatment of stormwater in this region requires a clear articulation of objectives—spatial distribution of appropriate management actions is dependent on the life histories of species, and management schemes optimized for one species may not achieve desired objectives for other species. In particular, we highlight that the scale of stormwater interventions must match the ecological scale relevant to species targeted by management. In many cases, management and policy will require mechanisms in order to ensure that local actions scale-up to efficiently and effectively achieve management objectives. In the face of rapid urbanization of coastal zones, failure to consider the match of management and ecological scales will result in the continued decline of coastal ecosystems and the species they support. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Integrative research perspectives on marine conservation’.

The paper wants to emphasize the importance of contemporary strategic management approachs in the defense system. Displays the work of American author Leslie Lewis and C. Robert Roll "Strategy-to- tasks: a methodology for resource allocation and management". It were used by parts of the discussion above, in order to describe the strategy-to-tasks methodology for planning, programming and budgeting system (PPBS). In developed Western countries adopted some elements of strategic management to determine and monitor the execution of strategic plans in the defense system. This trend is spreading to other countries as a result of the necessity of obeying certain methodological and technological achievements. The uncritical acceptance of a strategic management approach can cause great confusion and problems, and the terminology and scientific explanation for this trend is of great importance. Introduction PPBS is a resource management framework based on force planning concept. It was developed at the lRand Company during the late eighties and is adapted to the special needs of several DoD organization. The planning, programming and budgeting system (PPBS) PPBS is DoD`ş primary system for planning and managing defense resources. It links the overall U.S. national security strategy to specific programs. It was designed to facilitate fiscally-constrained planning, programming and budgeting in terms of complete programs (i.e. forces and systems) rather than through artificial budget categories. The goal is to determine forces, systems and program costs. Strategy-to-tasks and the PPBS The Strategy-To-Tasks methodology, regardless of its application, it must be consistent and supportive of each phase of the PPBS. This section describes the basics frameworks of which are adapted to resource allocation and management activities for the Special Operations Command (USSOCOM). The authors have used it during the various phases of the PPBS. The National Security Strategy is formulated at the executive branch. National security objectives determine what must be done to preserve and protect the national principles, goals and interests in relation to the threats and challenges. National military objectives determine the manner in which national security strategy will be supported by the military. Operational objectives define the various military strategies. They describe how forces will be used to support the national military objectives. Tasks are accurately expressed by different levels of command (CINCs). They are the specific actions that must be performed in order to accomplish an operational objective. USSOCOMS and strategy-to-tasks The author concludes that any recommendation to USSOCOM for improving management and resource allocation had to contain the elements that DoD requires in various PPBS phase: links from the national security strategy down to specific military tasks. Moreover, these elements must be reliable, reproducible and easily verifiable. There were three proposals for improvement: 1. develop linkages between national securityobjectives and USSOCOM program resource needs, 2. change USSOCOM's planning and programming processes, functions and data structures, 3. realign selected functions and organizational structure. USSOCOM and strategy-to-tasks framework Shows the revised Strategy-To-Taks framework as applied to USSOCOM. Force development issues in the U. S. Army Authors were asked to attempt to apply the STT methodology to facilitate development decision-making of U.S. military forces. The aim was on Army modernization. The approach that the authors outlined has enabled the U.S. Army to begin to evaluate its force structure and modernization programs against the other services by operational objective and task. The authors call this "competition among dissimilar systems." Institutionalize methodology Various application of mathodology are designed for STT simulation processes and connections among the commands and their associated elements. The authors point out that the application of the methodology STT shows how it can be developed and evaluated a complete operating concept. In this way, ensure that the logistical and other significant issues debated between the major military-related systems. The whole concept of an "operationalizing the PPBS process." Conclusion The main problems are observed using the approach of strategic management through literature and analysis of this example are: 1. proper determination of the strategic plan and its decomposition to lower down the strategic goals, objectives, processes, tasks and activities, 2. acceptance of the fact that the formulation and implementation of strategy is not a static process, 3. instead of a set of representative objectives the structure of objectives steers the organisation, 4. core structure of the objectives makes the process of harmonization of individual goals and their representation in the representative objectives, 5. implementation strategy consists in introducing the maximum number of persons with the basic hypotheses, 6. linking resources with hypotheses, a continuous test of the hypothesis and its application in real time. Every scientific theory has its own regularity of that time of origination, acceptance, implementation and application of the first serious critique of theory, important reductions, reshaping and creating new theories. The emergence and development of strategic management methodologies obvious example of the need and necessity of modern technology and the development of corporate culture and the Anglo-Saxon norm of civilization. Future direction of development strategic management methodologies is difficult to predict. The general impression is that the advent and advancement of strategic management methodologies that are organically connected with contemporary business information systems of this area substantially enclosed and that it has received the eventuaily contours.

This study introduces a framework for the monitoring and evaluation of spatially managed areas (SMAs), which is currently being tested by nine European case studies. The framework provides guidance on the selection, mapping, and assessment of ecosystem components and human pressures, the evaluation of management effectiveness and potential adaptations to management. Moreover, it provides a structured approach with advice on spatially explicit tools for practical tasks like the assessment of cumulative impacts of human pressures or pressure-state relationships. The case studies revealed emerging challenges, such as the lack of operational objectives within SMAs, particularly for transnational cases, data access, and stakeholder involvement. Furthermore, the emerging challenges of integrating the framework assessment using scientific information with a structured governance research analysis based mainly on qualitative information are addressed. The lessons learned will provide a better insight into the full range of methods and approaches required to support the implementation of the ecosystem approach to marine spatial management in Europe and elsewhere. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd.