Search

NEW FINDINGS What is the central question of this study? The pathophysiology of acute mountain sickness (AMS), involving the respiratory, renal and cerebrovascular systems, remains poorly understood. How do the early adaptations in these systems during a simulated altitude of 5000 m relate to AMS risk? What is the main finding and its importance? The rate of blood alkalosis and cerebral artery dilatation predict AMS severity during the first 10 h of exposure to a simulated altitude of 5000 m. Slow metabolic compensation by the kidneys of respiratory alkalosis attributable to a brisk breathing response together with excessive brain blood vessel dilatation might be involved in early development of AMS. ABSTRACT The complex pathophysiology of acute mountain sickness (AMS) remains poorly understood and is likely to involve maladaptive responses of the respiratory, renal and cerebrovascular systems to hypoxia. Using stepwise linear regression, we tested the hypothesis that exacerbated respiratory alkalosis, as a result of a brisk ventilatory response, sluggish renal compensation in acute hypoxia and dysregulation of cerebral perfusion predict AMS severity. We assessed the Lake Louise score (LLS, an index of AMS severity), fluid balance, ventilation, venous pH, bicarbonate, sodium and creatinine concentrations, body weight, urinary pH and cerebral blood flow [internal carotid artery (ICA) and vertebral artery (VA) blood flow and diameter], in 27 healthy individuals (13 women) throughout 10 h exposures to normobaric normoxia (fraction of inspired O2 = 0.21) and normobaric hypoxia (fraction of inspired O2 = 0.117, simulated 5000 m) in a randomized, single-blinded manner. In comparison to normoxia, hypoxia increased the LLS, ventilation, venous and urinary pH, and blood flow and diameter in the ICA and VA, while venous concentrations of both bicarbonate and creatinine were decreased (P

In 2019, the Human Factors and Ergonomics (HFE) discipline turned 70; to celebrate, an international group of academics and educators have reflected on the status of HFE tertiary education across the globe. This paper draws on presentations and discussions from the 20th Triennial International Ergonomics Association (IEA) conference and considers the implications for HFE education programmes. Past, current, and future challenges are outlined and discussed with examples from different countries and programmes. This paper builds on 2012 strategy proposed by Dul and colleagues, to strengthen the demand, and application, of the HFE discipline and profession. It provides a considered set of reflections, noting the range of structural issues and financial pressures within the tertiary education system that create challenges for the viability of specialist programmes such as HFE. A need exists for the broader profession to collaborate and share innovations in HFE programme development, to ensure sustainable HFE education programmes.

OBJECTIVE: National guidelines for moving and handling of people (MHP) were introduced in New Zealand in 2012 to reduce MHP-related injuries in the healthcare sector. This study assessed the effectiveness of this on MHP-related injury claims. METHODS: MHP-related injury claims were identified from the national injury claims database, which included 118 755 accepted claims for 2005–2016 across 14 industries. Interrupted time-series analysis was used to assess temporal changes in MHP-related claims rates, costs, and causes for the period before (2005–2012) and following (2013–2016) the introduction of the national guidelines. RESULTS: Prior to the introduction of the guidelines, MHP-related claims were estimated to be 39 209 (33.0% of all accepted injury claims), with claims rates and associated costs for the 14 industries decreasing by 0.4 [95% confidence interval (CI) -0.5‒ -0.2, P

This book describes how to conduct a large-scale anthropometric survey in the military with a specific focus on the New Zealand Defence Force Anthropometry Survey. This book provides a historical introduction to surface kinanthropometry (Part I), 3D scanning technology (Part II) and an overview of military anthropometry surveys in Part IV. It also provides a description of the New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) anthropometry survey in Part IV, conclusions in Part V and concludes with the measurement technique protocols and normative data for the NZDF kinanthropometry survey in Part VI. While surface anthropometry has traditionally been used to assess body composition through the internationally recognised methodology of the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK), the commercialisation of three-dimensional photometry (3D scanning) has led to the adoption of new and often non-standardised, measurement techniques. We detail standardisation procedures for 3D scanning in terms of participant preparation, equipment calibration, test protocols, data reporting and data interpretation. We outline how 3D scanning works, what it is used to measure, and what the issues are surrounding its validity, practicality, and reliability. This book provides an essential reference for practitioners wishing to measure military physique. We have not presented 3-D assessment data (i.e. surface manifold, volumetric, symmetry or shape analysis). We have only extracted 1-D measures from 3D images in this eBook.

Responding to ongoing concerns that Michel Foucault’s influential governmentality analytics fail to enable the study of ‘resistance’, this paper analyses his last two lecture courses on ‘parrhesia’ (risky and courageous speech). While Foucault resisted resistance as an analytical category, he increasingly pointed us towards militant, alternative and insolent forms of counter-conduct. The paper comparatively analyses Foucault’s reading of Plato, Socrates and the Cynics, exploring parrhesia’s episteme (its truth–knowledge relations), techne (its practice and geographies), identities (its souls and its bodies) and its possible relations to the present. It concludes that Foucault viewed resistance as power; power which problematised governmentalities but could also be analysed as a governmentality itself. In pursuing parrhesia, Foucault reaffirmed his commitment to studying discourse as always emplaced and enacted, while sketching out the geographies (from the royal court and the democratic Assembly to the public square and the street) that staged the risk of truth-talking. This suggests new subjects and spaces to open up political possibilities when exploring the geographies of governmentalities.

Purpose:To investigate whether youth and adults can perceive differences in exertion between walking and running at speeds near the preferred transition speed (PTS) and if there are age-related differences in these perceptions.Methods:A total of 49 youth (10–12 y, n = 21; 13–14 y, n = 10; 15–17 y, n = 18) and 13 adults (19–29 y) completed a walk-to-run transition protocol to determine PTS and peak oxygen uptake. The participants walked and ran on a treadmill at 5 speeds (PTS–0.28 m·s−1, PTS–0.14 m·s−1, PTS, PTS+0.14 m·s−1, PTS+0.28 m·s−1) and rated perceived exertion using the OMNI Perceived Exertion (OMNI-RPE) scale. Oxygen consumption was measured during the walk-to-run transition protocol to obtain the relative intensity (percentage of peak oxygen uptake) at PTS. OMNI-RPE scores at all speeds and percentage of peak oxygen uptake at PTS were compared between age groups.Results:The 10- to 12-year-olds transitioned at a higher percentage of peak oxygen uptake than adults (64.54 [10.18] vs 52.22 [11.40], respectively;P = .035). The 10- to 14-year-olds generally reported higher OMNI-RPE scores than the 15- to 17-year-olds and adults (P −1.Conclusions:Children aged 10–14 years are less able to distinguish whether walking or running requires less effort at speeds near the PTS compared with adults. The inability to judge which gait mode is less demanding could hinder the ability to minimize locomotive demands.

BACKGROUND Electric adjustable height desks (EAHD) have been promoted as an opportunity for desk based workers to stand at work but there is limited evidence that they have an effect on light physical activity. OBJECTIVE The main objective was to determine if there would be a change in light physical activity with the introduction of EAHD. The secondary objective was to assess if there was an associated change in leisure time activity. METHODS Activity levels were measured by step counts, self-reported activity levels and pre- and post-trial recall levels. Statistical analysis of the data was performed with the software R. Generalised linear models were fitted to the data. A Poisson regression was used for count data. Statistical hypotheses were deemed significant if their p values were less than 0.05. RESULTS There was a significant (p

Thirty six volunteer air force personnel were sequentially exposed in a randomized balanced order in a hypobaric chamber to 30 min of baseline (sea level) and mild hypoxia induced by a specified altitude (sea level, 8000 ft and 12,000 ft), followed immediately by breathing 100% oxygen from an oro-nasal mask. Mood and complex cognition were assessed. Analysis of variance indicated that mood (fatigue and vigour) remained the same at 8000 ft but fatigue was increased (p = 0.001) and vigour reduced (p = 0.035) at 12,000 ft and was restored by supplementary oxygen. Complex cognition was not significantly altered by the test conditions. The results of this study do not support prior evidence that mild hypoxia equivalent to either 8000 or 12,000 ft, impairs complex cognition, but suggests that some aspects of mood may be affected at 12,000 ft and can be restored by breathing 100% oxygen.

Health care workers, including nurses, have one of the highest musculoskeletal injury incidence rates of any profession, especially work-related back injuries. The majority of musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) in health care are caused by moving and handling of people (MHP). In order to reduce MSDs due to MHP, some national health care sector authorities worldwide have developed intervention programmes or guidelines that can be used by their health care organisations. However, very few of the national interventions have been evaluated for their efficacy or impact. In those that have, the effort to reduce the incidence of MSDs caused by MHP has been largely unsuccessful, often because of barriers. This study aimed to identify what barriers, and facilitators, existed in health care organisations in relation to implementation of the New Zealand MHP guidelines. It was found that implementing a MHP programme especially requires sufficient resources for training and strong support based on evidence, or legislation. Management support for equipment purchase or maintenance is also essential, as is sufficient training for changing the culture of the workplace. It is also important to assess staff MHP knowledge and practices. MHP programmes need to be designed to be suitable for different sectors such as age care, and different users such as a foreign work force.

When evaluating national work environment initiatives, it is important to choose methods through which it is possible to gather necessary and relevant information in a time efficient way for researchers and involved organisations. This article evaluates the usefulness of chronicle workshops as a data collection method to help assess the effectiveness of national work environment initiatives aiming to create interventions in organisations. Chronicle Workshops were used as one of three methods in case studies evaluating a national guideline on moving and handling people. Chronicle workshops were found to be an efficient method to identify specific interventions, when they occurred, who had been instrumental in implementing them, what contextual factors had influenced the intervention and factors facilitating and hindering intervention. They lacked specificity on individual strategies and why these did or did not work. Thus Chronicle workshops are good at creating an overview of implementation efforts but need to be supplemented with other methods to gain more detailed information.

From flight-crew to cabin-crew, air-traffic controllers to aircraft engineers - the ‘human factor’ is vital to the safe and efficient operation of all aspects of the aviation industry. Over the past three decades a better understanding of Human Factors has resulted in significant safety benefits, forming a cornerstone of every aviation safety management programme. With this in mind, an innovative approach to teaching Ergonomics and Human Factors (E/HF) at Coventry University has created a unique MSc in Aviation Human Factors. From the outset this specialist part-time MSc has been designed to attract a wide range of aviation professionals (e.g. aviation engineers, flight and cabin crew, safety personnel, or air traffic controllers) from civil or military organisations in the UK or overseas. The course therefore provides a niche and bespoke learning experience for its students, and from a user requirements perspective this necessitated a particular pedagogic approach.

Although much is known about small and medium enterprises (SMEs), our current knowledge and understanding of occupational health and safety (OHS) and the work environment in SMEs is limited. Far less is known about how SMEs put our knowledge of OSH into action. In short, how do we create healthy work and healthy lives as well as ‘healthy business’ in SMEs? The present paper, which also acts as an Editorial for this special issue, addresses these questions by providing a summary of current knowledge – our understanding – about how to create healthy work and healthy lives for workers and owner-managers in SMEs whilst concurrently also aiming to create a healthy business (in terms of profitability and sustainability). This paper and the special issue also emphasise the need to convert this knowledge into action – ‘from understanding to action’.

Technological and legislative safety solutions will only succeed if the social systems, attitudes and behaviours at work support them. Safety climate is one of the factors related to effective hazard management, including management of noise. Data on levels of noise, risk factors and compliance with the relevant Code of Practice were collected from 20 New Zealand small and medium workplaces with employee counts ranging from 2–48. One hundred and sixty-three (163) respondents from these workplaces also provided data on self-reported hearing protection use, safety climate and attitudes to controlling noise at work. Levels of compliance with New Zealand Approved Code of Practice requirements were low, even in workplaces with high levels of noise. Use of hearing protection devices (HPD) was highest in construction and manufacturing but no respondents in hospitality (cafes) or education (early childhood education) reported using hearing protection despite some high levels of noise.

Sustainability is a global issue that has worldwide attention but the role of ergonomics in designing for sustainability is poorly understood and seldom considered. An analysis of the literature on ergonomics, design and sustainability was conducted via a search of electronic databases: Scopus, Business Source Complete, Google Scholar, Emerald Publishing, Academic Search Premiere, Web of Science, Discover and Ergonomics Abstracts, for the years 1995-2012. A total of 1934 articles fulfilled the search criteria, but content analysis of the abstracts indicated that only 14 refereed articles addressed the main search criteria. Of those seven were in ergonomics journals and seven were in other journals (and were not written by ergonomists). It is concluded that the contribution of ergonomics to sustainability and sustainable design has been limited, even though the goals of sustainability and ergonomics are congruent. Ergonomists have not been at the forefront of research contributing to sustainability - and it is time for them to 'seize the day' - 'carpe diem'.This literature review shows that ergonomics contribution to sustainability is limited but since there is congruence between the disciplines it calls for ergonomists to become more involved and to seize the day - carpe diem.

The Large Scale Polarisation Explorer (LSPE) is a balloon-borne experiment aiming to measure the B-mode component of the CMB polarisation at large angular scales. Onboard LSPE, the Short Wavelength Instrument for the Polarisation Explorer (SWIPE) is a bolometric polarimeter observing in three bands centred at 140, 220 and 240 GHz. The telescope is a single large-diameter plano-convex lens with a cold aperture stop. A small number of multi-mode feed horns feeding bolometric detectors are used within the focal plane, achieving a sensitivity equivalent to that of 100’s of single-mode horns. Simulations have been performed to predict the multi-mode optical response of the horn-lens configuration for centre and off-axis pixels pertaining to each frequency band. The horn has been simulated to a high accuracy using the Method of Moments. Using the horn simulation result as a source, the optical response of the lens has been examined using the more approximate simulation technique; Ray-Launching Geometrical Optics (RL-GO). Solution accuracy and simulation time depend heavily on the choice of RL-GO simulation parameters including: mesh size; the number of launched rays; and how densely the horn source beam is sampled. Individual convergence studies have been performed for each of these parameters and a final model has been obtained as a compromise between simulation time and accuracy. The instrumental polarisation of the lens is predicted to be at the -50 dB level. Finally, the optimal location of where to place the telescope focus in relation to the horn to maximise on-axis gain has been investigated. Several techniques agreed that the ‘phase centre’ is around 20 mm behind the horn aperture at 140 GHz, increasing to 30 mm at 220 and 240 GHz. Taking into account beam truncation effects caused by the finite size of the telescope was found to reduce the overall variation in on-axis gain.

Background The purpose of this study was to examine: (1) the prevalence of low back symptoms (LBS) and its consequences (reduced activities and absenteeism); (2) the association between occupational group and LBS; and (3) the association between LBS and its consequences. Methods A self-administered questionnaire was used to determine the prevalence of LBS in 1,294 Indonesian coal mining workers. A Cox proportional hazards model was developed to quantify the 12-monthly hazard of LBS. Logistic regression models were developed to identify risk factors for reduced activity and absenteeism from the workplace. Results The 12-month period prevalence for LBS, reduced activities, and absenteeism were 75%, 16%, and 13%, respectively. The 12-monthly hazard of LBS for blue-collar workers was 1.85 (95% CI: 1.06–3.25) times that of white-collar workers. LBS and smoking increased the risk of reduced activity and absenteeism. Conclusions Indonesian coal mining workers have a high prevalence of LBS. The findings imply that efforts to reduce LBS and in the workplace should focus on blue-collar workers. For smokers who report reduced activities and/or absenteeism, there should be a focus on rehabilitation and/or return-to-work programs. Am. J. Ind. Med. 56:576–589, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Although quite a lot is known about the risk factors for low back symptoms (LBS), less is known about the risk factors for the consequences of LBS. A sample of 3003 men and women randomly selected from the New Zealand Electoral Roll, were interviewed by telephone about self reported physical, psychosocial, organizational, environmental factors and the consequences of LBS (i.e. self-reported reduced activities and absenteeism). The 12-month period prevalence of reduced activities and absenteeism were 18% and 9%, respectively. Lifting (OR 1.79 95% CI 1.16-2.77) increased the risk of reduced activities. Working in awkward/tiring positions (OR 2.11 95% CI 1.20-3.70) and in a cold/damp environment (OR 2.18 95% CI 1.11-4.28) increased the risk of absenteeism. Among those with LBS, reduced activities increased with working in a hot/warm environment (OR 2.14 95% CI 1.22-3.76) and absenteeism was increased with work in awkward/tiring positions (OR 2.06 95% CI 1.13-3.77), tight deadlines (OR 1.89 95% CI 1.02-3.50), and a hot/warm environment (OR 3.35 95% CI 1.68-6.68). Interventions to reduce the consequences of LBS should aim to reduce awkward/tiring positions, lifting and work in a cold/damp environment. For individuals with LBS, additional focus should be to reduce tight deadlines, and work in hot/warm environments.

Although there is strong evidence that single physical, psychosocial and organisational risk factors are each inde- pendent predictors of low back symptoms (LBS) and its consequences, little is known about their combination/interaction. A preliminary study was conducted among 673 workers as part of a larger study (n=1294) in a coal mining company in Indo- nesia. A self-reported questionnaire was used to obtain physical and psychosocial exposures, and organisational factors. Each participant was grouped into one of four combination exposure groups: 1) high physical (working with bent trunk, whole body vibration exposure, lifting) and high psychosocial (high effort, low reward, work stress), 2) high physical and low psychosocial, 3) low physical and high psychosocial, 4) low physical and low psychosocial (as the reference group). Individuals in the high physical and high psychosocial group were the most likely to report LBS (OR 3.47 95% CI 1.81- 6.64), reduced activities (OR 6.94 95% CI 1.58-30.49) and absenteeism (OR 7.01 95% CI 2.04-24.10). Permanent workers were more likely to report LBS and its consequences whereas night shift work increased the risk of LBS consequences. Interventions to reduce LBS and its consequences should address both physical and psychosocial factors, with a focus on permanent and night shift workers.

Although musculoskeletal symptoms (MSS) are common worldwide, little is known about its prevalence amongst the working population in relation to gender, age, and occupational/industrial group. This paper describes the prevalence of MSS in a sample of 3003 men and women aged 20–64 randomly selected from the New Zealand Electoral Roll. MSS experienced during the previous 12 months in 10 body regions was assessed in telephone interviews using a modified version of the Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (NMQ). MSS prevalence was 92% (for any body region). The highest prevalence was for low back (54%), neck (43%), and shoulders (42%). Females reported a statistically significantly higher prevalence of MSS in the neck, shoulders, wrist/hands, upper back and hips/thighs/buttocks regions compared to males while males reported more symptoms of the elbows, low back and knees. There were no statistically significant differences in prevalence among age groups. In general, participants with heavy physical workloads had significantly higher prevalence of symptoms in most body regions than those with light physical workloads although women with light physical workloads reported more neck symptoms. The study indicates that the New Zealand working population has a high prevalence of MSS and that exposure in the workplace plays a role. Relevance to industry The findings of this study imply that efforts to reduce MSS in the workplace should focus on females and employees with high physical workloads.

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to present the literature which identifies the characteristics of small enterprises and outlines the opportunities to utilise them in working with small businesses to prevent and reduce exposures to hazardous substances.Design/methodology/approachA search of a variety of data sources, including Medline, PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, was conducted which combined the keyword search terms “small business”, “small enterprise”, “management”, “health and safety management”, “hazardous substances”, “hazardous chemicals”, “management of hazardous substances”. High quality studies were selected and combined with studies known to the authors.FindingsA strong body of evidence exists which shows that the management of OSH in small enterprises has been extensively reviewed and the most recurring theme is the identification of problems and challenges. A growing body of literature also confirms that models for chemical risk management and social responsibility issues can play a key role in managing hazardous chemical exposures in small enterprises. Furthermore, studies have shown that there are certain characteristics of small business that potentially provide positive opportunities for the implementation of preventive interventions.Originality/valueThe paper identifies these characteristics and features and suggests these can be effectively utilised in the design and development of interventions to prevent and reduce exposures to hazardous substances in small enterprises. Few interventions, however, have been developed utilising these positive characteristics.

This study investigated risk factors associated with back pain in 245 New Zealand intermediate school children aged 11-14 years in a cross-sectional survey, using a self-completion questionnaire for demographic details, pain prevalence, psychosocial parameters, school and leisure activities and family characteristics. The strongest relationships were between back pain and common childhood complaints (stomach ache, headache and sore throats) (p < 0.01) and psychosocial factors (conduct and hyperactivity) (p < 0.01). For physical factors, there was a significant relationship between neck and low back pain and attributes of chairs. Low back pain was significantly related to low desk height (as reported by students) (p < 0.05). School bag weight was not significantly related to low back pain but carrying the bag on one shoulder was (p < 0.05). It is concluded that, amongst these intermediate school children, psychological, social and emotional factors had a stronger relationship with back pain than physical factors. STATEMENT OF RELEVANCE: This study investigated risk factors associated with back pain amongst New Zealand intermediate school children. It showed that psychological, social and emotional factors may have a stronger relationship with back pain than physical factors.

A cross-sectional survey among 245 children was conducted to establish the prevalence and characteristics of back pain in school children aged 11-14 years. A self-complete questionnaire was used to ascertain demographic details, pain prevalence, psychosocial parameters, school and leisure activities and family characteristics. In the last month, 58% of children had experienced spinal pain. In total, 31% of children reported that pain occurred in one part of the back, while 28% stated that pain presented in more than one spinal region. Pain in the last month was found to be equally prevalent in the low back (35%) and neck (36%) regions. Low back pain was associated with the most severe pain and pain lasting for the longest duration when compared with the upper back and neck regions. Further research should be directed towards investigating pain in the neck region and understanding the characteristics of symptom co-occurrence. STATEMENT OF RELEVANCE: A survey was conducted to establish the prevalence and characteristics of back pain in school children. The results provide additional evidence that back pain is a serious problem in children aged 11-14 years, whilst also indicating widespread co-occurrence of pain in the neck, upper back and lower back spinal regions.

A cross-sectional study using a modified Nordic musculoskeletal questionnaire asked 867 New Zealand veterinarians about the presence or absence of musculoskeletal discomfort (MSD). Participants were asked if MSD affected their normal activities and if it required any period(s) of absence from work. Additional questions enquired about work activities, psychosocial factors and workload. A binary logistic regression analysis was used to quantify the association between identified risk factors and the presence of MSD requiring absence from work in the previous 12 months, controlling for the presence of known confounders. The overall period prevalence of MSD was 96%, 67% had normal activities being affected and 18% of participants reported that they had been absent from work due to MSD. The lower back was the body site most commonly reported for MSD (73%). Factors increasing the odds of MSD requiring time off work for clinical veterinarians were 10 year increases in age (OR 1.26, 95% CI 1.05-1.52), work involving awkward grip and hand movements 100% of time (OR 12.91, 95% CI 3.46-4.21) and those who were dissatisfied with the level and difficulty of their work (OR 2.27, 95% CI 1.11-6.56). These findings have implications for health, lifestyle and retention rates for veterinarians.

To describe veterinarians' perceptions of the causes of, and reasons for, work-related musculoskeletal discomfort (MSD), and to summarise their suggestions for ways to reduce the risk of MSD.A cross-sectional study administered online asked 2,112 veterinarians registered in New Zealand to indicate, using free-handed text, the three tasks that "will most likely lead to musculoskeletal aches and pains (MSD)", reasons "why are these tasks likely to be the most risky?", and "any solutions that you apply or know of ".Complete questionnaires were returned by 828 veterinarians, a response rate of 39%. The tasks considered by veterinarians most likely to lead to MSD were lifting, surgery, rectal palpations, and animal handling. The main reasons why tasks were perceived to be most likely to lead to MSD were awkward posture, repetitive activities, and physical activity. The solutions suggested by veterinarians included provision of appropriate assistance and/or adequate staff, attention to correct manual handling techniques, provision of facilities to allow work to be carried out at a comfortable height, and regular rotation of jobs. Of the 39 solution categories, 16 (41%) could be categorised as those requiring a change in design of the work environment, and 15 (38%) involved training.The results of this study indicate that veterinarians perceive the causes of work-related MSD to be related to physical rather than psychosocial factors. We propose that the findings reported in this study provide a useful starting point for the application of a participatory ergonomics approach for addressing the problem of MSD amongst veterinarians in New Zealand.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate new ways of managing hazardous chemicals in small businesses. This purpose is pursued by examining owner-managers’ perception, knowledge and practice in relation to the management of hazardous chemicals, and the preferred information sources used in small businesses in three industry sectors. Seventy-five owner-managers of small businesses (36 hairdressers, 25 printers and 14 apple growers) in New Zealand were interviewed about their attitude towards hazardous chemicals, as well as their knowledge and management of them. The majority of the owners were not concerned about dealing with the chemicals used in their industry. In general, their knowledge about health and safety, as well as their compliance practice in relation to hazardous chemicals, was poor, although they were unaware of this fact. The apple growers stood out as having the best practical management of hazardous chemicals, and the hairdressers and printers had poorer management practices but...

Little is known about how knowledge of the particular features of small businesses can be transformed into national occupational safety and health programmes that can successfully prevent accidents and occupational diseases. This paper describes a theoretical framework for an analysis of occupational safety and health programmes aimed at small businesses, based on ‘programme theory’ — the fundamental rationale and driver(s) underlying what makes a programme work. It describes the existing programmes in New Zealand and an in-depth analysis of three specific types of programme — general (the Workplace Safety Discount scheme), sector (FarmSafe) and local (the Waitakere City Council Cleaner Production: Boat Building Project) — each representing a particular strategy for reaching out to small businesses. In doing so, the rationales and mechanisms underlying each programme were sought and described in order to make them transparent. The programme theory for each was further examined through analysis of ...

There is limited literature on the effects of a deficit in body water on human cognitive function, with inconsistent and contradictory results. In his critical review of this area Lieberman [1] recommended that typical confounding factors such as the method to induce dehydration (exercise, heat stress, diuretics) and other experimental control (sleep, diet, caffeine) should be considered carefully as little existing research has done so. Few studies have actually assessed what occurs naturally, namely a person simply not drinking sufficiently. The purpose of this study was to measure the cognitive effects of 'not drinking enough' ('voluntary dehydration') when other confounding factors such as sleep, diet and caffeine are controlled.

This study aimed to quantify the interaction between physical and psychosocial factors on the presence of neck/shoulder symptoms (NSS) and its consequences (reduced activities and absenteeism) among 1294 coal mining workers in Indonesia. A self-administered questionnaire was used to obtain information on current workplace exposure and NSS and its consequences. Participants were grouped into one of four combination exposure groups: low physical and low psychosocial (as the reference group); low physical and high psychosocial; high physical and low psychosocial, and high physical and high psychosocial (HPhyHPsy). The attributable proportion (AP) due to interaction between both factors was examined. Individuals in the HPhyHPsy group were most likely to report NSS [odds ratio (OR) 4.83, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.43-9.58], reduced activities (OR 3.90, 95% CI 2.36-6.43), and absenteeism (OR 3.91, 95% CI 2.11-7.25). This study has shown an interaction between physical and psychosocial factors that increases the OR of NSS (AP 0.49, 95% CI 0.08-0.89). Practitioner Summary: Although physical and psychosocial factors are known to be predictors for NSS, little is known about their interaction. Self-reported questionnaire was used to obtain information about physical and psychosocial factors at work. This study found an interaction between the physical and psychosocial risk factors that increases the odds ratio of NSS.

Review of: Andrew Barry (2013) Material politics: disputes along the pipeline. Wiley-Blackwell: London

This paper presents a conceptual model for increasing acceptable working environments for SMEs. It also acts as an editorial for the special issue of Safety Science on ‘Managing safety in small and medium enterprises (SMEs)’. It describes how seven of the ten papers in the special issue originate from an international conference in 2013 on Understanding Small Enterprises. It includes a commentary on the papers in the special issue as well as directing the reader to all of the current state-of-the-science sources known to the authors. The paper provides a background to previous research on safety in SMEs, showing how most current policy and legislation on occupational health and safety (OSH) and the work environment is based on large enterprises and that there is a relative paucity of research on OSH in SMEs. In a summary of current knowledge, it is argued that modern OHS legislation and interventions to help improve work environments need to increasingly take account of the specific characteristics of SMEs. The conceptual model for increasing acceptable working environments for SMEs takes its onset in a legislative standard that is built into intervention programmes and includes three instrument pillars: inspection to enhance compliance, recognition of the standard by the stakeholders in the industry sector and dissemination of information to small enterprises. 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Slip, trip and fall (STF) incidents, particularly falls from a height, are a leading cause of injury in the New Zealand residential construction industry. The most common origins of falls from a height in this sector are ladders, scaffolding and roofs, while slipping is the most frequent fall initiating event category. The study aimed to provide detailed information on construction industry STF risk factors for high-risk tasks, work equipment and environments, as identified from an earlier analysis of STF claims data, together with information to be used in the development of interventions to reduce STF risk in New Zealand residential construction. The study involved the use of both incident-centred and incident-independent methods of investigation, including detailed follow-up investigations of incidents and observations and interviews with workers on construction sites, to provide data on a wide range of risk factors. A large number of risk factors for residential construction STFs were identified, including factors related to the work environment, tasks and the use and availability of appropriate height work equipment. The different methods of investigation produced complementary information on factors related to equipment design and work organization, which underlie some of the site conditions and work practices identified as key risk factors for residential construction STFs. A conceptual systems model of residential construction STF risk is presented.

Back pain is now recognised to occur early in childhood and is associated with high prevalence rates when estimated by survey. This review paper considers the risk factors associated with back pain in children aged 11-14 years, and particularly those present in a school setting. The risk factors most significantly associated with back pain are primarily characteristics of the individual with less strong associations with factors present in the school environment. The majority of intervention studies undertaken in a school setting have focussed on the effect of school furniture on posture and comfort and were of short-term duration. There is a need for further research in order to achieve a better understanding of the risk factors present in a school environment and to address ways to reduce the currently recognised perceived problem of back pain among school children. A strategy for an evidence-based longitudinal intervention study is proposed, with the content outlined under the headings: policy, school equipment and furniture, individual and family.

Until relatively recently, travel agents have been the key intermediary between travel suppliers and consumers, with information as their primary stock in trade. However, changes to information technology and the advent of the internet have the potential to allow travel suppliers and consumers to interact directly, thus threatening the existence of the traditional travel agent. This paper examines the factors that influence travel consumers' choices between using a travel agent and/or the internet when planning and arranging their overseas holidays. Research employing a questionnaire survey and focus groups was conducted in a small New Zealand city. Findings from this exploratory study indicated the importance of a number of service dimensions, in particular: reliability, handling complexity, assurance, good deals and security. Other findings suggested that travel agents could become more competitive through more effective use of information technology and that the perceived value of the services required can influence consumer choices.

Adult musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) such as neck and low back pain have been widely reported as being of significant health and economic concern in industrialised countries. Recent literature has indicated that these disorders are also prevalent amongst school students. Student posture in classroom environments has been implicated as a risk factor for spinal MSD, but the relationship between student classroom postures and the development of subsequent adult MSD is unknown. Thus, this review examined the literature on school student (pupil) posture (five year olds through to university) in classroom environments, and its potential for predisposing adults to musculoskeletal conditions (particularly neck and low back pain) in their working life. The review is presented under the following five headings: student posture, anthropometrics and furniture; computer use; pain reporting; vision. The review indicated that all of these factors could influence the prevalence of MSD amongst pupils and suggested that any attempts to reduce MSD amongst school children should include an integrated ergonomics approach involving micro and macro ergonomic factors such as classroom furniture design, posture education, backpack weight and load carriage, learning systems re-organisation and general organisation of school activities. Although there was strong evidence that all five of the main factors examined in this review are related to MSD amongst school students, none of the papers reviewed provided any specific evidence that student MSD was related to subsequent MSD in adult life. It is therefore concluded that there was no clear objective evidence to support the view that there is a relationship between poor school posture and the development of neck and/or low back pain in adult working life.

The effect of three types of cell phones (hand held, hands free with an external speaker and personal hands free) on total subjective workload (including its constituent components; mental demand, physical demand, temporal demand, performance, effort and frustration) and intelligibility was measured using the NASA-task load index (TLX) and the modified rhyme test (MRT), respectively in 13 experienced drivers (nine male, four female, age range 28-65 years), whilst driving on a rural highway. The drivers rated all components of workload for each type of cell phone to be significantly higher than for a control condition in which no cell phone was used. The mean (standard deviation) total workload was lowest for the personal hands free cell phone (7.1(3.65)) and highest for the hands free speaker phone (10.8 (3.63)) (P0.001). The mean (standard deviation) intelligibility score was highest for the personal hands free cell phone (74.1 (7.9)) and lowest for the hands free speaker phone (55.0 (10.4)) (P0.001). Frustration was significantly correlated with total workload (0.60, P0.001) and intelligibility was significantly correlated with frustration (-0.35, P0.05). Physical demand was not a high contributor to total workload. It is concluded that a personal hands free cell phone would interfere least with the cognitive demands of driving.

This study was undertaken as a preliminary investigation to compare cycling errors and sudden stopping distance in secondary students traversing an obstacle course on their bicycle with and without a schoolbag, to determine if further studies of cycling accident aetiology amongst children were warranted. Twenty children cycled as fast as they could around an obstacle course. Each child undertook two separate trials, about an hour apart on a morning of the same day. The children traversed the course one at a time in turn using their own bicycle and wearing their own usual school clothes. For the first trial they did not carry a schoolbag. On the second trial they carried a schoolbag weighing 6 kg. There were no significant differences in the number of cycling errors made by the children when traversing the obstacle course with and without a schoolbag. However, the children generally took longer to complete the course when carrying the schoolbag and stopping distances were greater. It was not possible to be certain that these findings were genuine or whether the effect of carrying the schoolbag was reduced by increased familiarity with the course, since all of the children first traversed the course without a schoolbag and then with one. It is concluded that there is some justification for conducting further studies to explore the implications of carrying schoolbags on cycling accident aetiology amongst children.

Four backpacks were evaluated for their desireability for use as school bags. Three of the four backpacks were specifically designed for school use based on previous research and ergonomic principles while the fourth (standard) backpack was chosen from two backpacks that their manufacturer considered to be the most likely to be used as a school bag. Twelve school students evaluated each of the backpacks firstly by examining them, again after donning them and again after walking with them on a treadmill by completing a questionnaire asking about the appearance, function and comfort of each backpack. On initial examination, the standard backpack was the most favoured but as functionality became increasingly important during the treadmill walk, the backpack which was designed specifically for school use and had two major compartments, substantial back padding and side compression straps became the most favoured. This particular design of backpack was reported as having the greatest practicality, being the least physically demanding and allowing the greatest balance and ease of walking. The results of this study suggest that school student's preference of backpack may change from when they first examine a prospective backpack to when they have used it. The study also shows that school students' preferred attributes in a backpack may shift over this time from 'style and image' to 'function and fit'.

This study aimed, firstly, to determine whether 22-day and 9-day courses at Outward Bound New Zealand (OBNZ) enhanced participants’ personal and interpersonal development and, secondly, to develop a greater understanding of how the outcomes were achieved. A mixed methodology was used involving a self-concept questionnaire and semi-open-ended written responses six months after the end of the courses. The findings indicated that the main outcomes of the OBNZ courses were aspects of personal development and interpersonal effectiveness, particularly improved self-confidence and better relationships. Key elements of the educational process appeared to be the instructors and the course atmosphere. The diversity and maturity within the group were also important in accelerating the development of group dynamics and a safe and positive learning environment. The findings also illustrated that a mixed methodology was an appropriate and effective way of linking the study of outcomes with the investigation of the educational process.

This study assessed the combined effect of physical and psychosocial/organisational and/or environmental factors on the presence of musculoskeletal symptoms (MSS) and its consequences (reduced activities and absenteeism due to MSS) in a random sample of 3003 workers in New Zealand. By telephone interview, participants reported their current workplace exposures and MSS (neck/shoulder, arm/elbow, wrist and low back) and its consequences. Data were analysed using multivariable logistic regression. Combined exposure to physical and psychosocial/organisational and/or environmental factors increased the odds of MSS in the neck/shoulder (OR 3.14, 95% CI 1.79-5.52), arms/elbow regions (OR 4.14, 95% CI 2.21-7.76) and low back (OR 1.74, 95% CI 1.28-2.37) and its consequences, i.e. reduced activities due to neck/shoulder symptoms (OR 5.45, 95% CI 2.28-13.00), absenteeism due to neck/shoulder symptoms (OR 5.19, 95% CI 2.24-12.01) and absenteeism due to low back symptoms (OR 4.37, 95% CI 2.92-6.53). In contrast, favourable psychosocial/organisational work conditions reduced the odds of wrist symptoms due to poor physical work conditions (OR 2.19, 95% CI 1.44-3.34). We conclude that to reduce MSS and its consequences, employers need to adopt a multifaceted approach: concentrate on improving physical conditions as well as the psychosocial/organisational and environmental aspects of the working environment.

The decreased pressure in the cabin of a pressurised aircraft (typically equivalent to ~8000 ft) reduces the oxygen level so that the blood oxygen saturation of all occupants falls from >97% (normoxia) at sea-level to below 92% (mild hy- poxia). Although exposure to mild hypoxia does not affect well-learned cognitive and motor performance of aircrew, it has been proposed that it can affect the performance of some complex cognitive performance tasks involving multiple demands typical of emergency tasks that may have to be performed by pilots. In order to simulate some of these complex cognitive de- mands, 25 student volunteers participated in an experiment which assessed performance of complex logical reasoning and and multiple memory tasks before and after 2 hours of exposure to normoxia and mild hypoxia. Performance for the more difficult components of the complex reasoning task, especially involving conflict decisions, were marginally significantly degraded by mild hypoxia. Since the effects were only marginally significant future studies should investigate the effects of mild hypoxia on more subtle complex decision-making tasks.

Due to the many constraints that small businesses (SBs) face in meeting legislative requirements, occu- pational health and safety (OHS) regulatory authorities and other OSH actors have developed programmes which can reach out to SBs and motivate and assist them in improving the work environment. A number of conceptual models help to enhance our understanding of OHS interventions in SBs and their effectiveness. However, they have mainly been evaluated on output rather than the process relating to the change theory underlying the inter- vention, and hence have seldom been rigorously evaluated. Thus little is known about how particular features of SBs can be taken into account when designing and implementing national programmes. This paper shows how realist analysis and programme theory may be used as a framework for evaluating, developing and improving na- tional intervention programmes for the improvement of the work environment and reducing injuries in SBs. It illustrates this for a specific New Zealand intervention: the Workplace Safety Discount scheme and its implemen- tation in the agriculture sector. In practice, realist analysis should be performed during the planning, implementa- tion and management stages so that ongoing findings can be fed back to the participant social actors to help them make appropriate changes to enhance the likelihood of success.

The International Ergonomics Association (IEA)'s definition of HF/E includes the following:Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance … Organizational ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of sociotechnical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes. (IEA Council, 2000)

Introduction: This study examines the prevalence of a range of occupational risk factors reported by a random sample of the New Zealand working population. Methods: Men and women aged 20–64 were selected from the New Zealand Electoral Roll and invited to take part in a telephone interview, which collected information on lifetime work history, current workplace exposures and organizational factors, and various health conditions. The prevalences of occupational risk factors in each occupational and industry group are reported. Results: Three thousand and three interviews were completed (37% of the eligible sample and 55% of those that could be contacted). Trades workers reported the highest prevalences of exposure to dust (75%) and oils and solvents (59%). Agriculture and fishery workers reported the highest prevalences of exposure to pesticides (63%) and acids or alkalis (25%). Plant and machine operators and assemblers reported the highest prevalences of exposure to smoke/fume/gas (43%), working night shift in the previous 4 weeks (18%), and working irregular hours (33%). In the high exposure occupational and industry groups, males reported a higher prevalence of exposure than females. Lifting, exposure to loud noise, and the use of personal protective equipment were reported by >50% of the manual occupational groups. Conclusions: This study indicates that occupational exposure to risk factors for workrelated disease and injury remains common in the New Zealand working population. While these occupational exposures are disproportionately experienced by workers in certain industries, they also occur in occupational groups not traditionally associated with hazardous exposures or occupational disease.

Recently, several studies have addressed the physical demands of school student's load carriage, in particular the load weight carried, using physical demands indicators such as oxygen consumption, gait, and posture. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of different load carriage configurations on shoulder strap tension forces and shoulder interface pressure during simulated school student's load carriage. A load carriage simulator was used to compare shoulder strap forces and shoulder pressure for 32 combinations of gait speed, backpack weight, load distribution, shoulder strap length and use of a hip-belt. The results showed that the manipulation of backpack weight, hip-belt use and shoulder strap length had a strong effect on shoulder strap tension and shoulder pressure. Backpack weight had the greatest influence on shoulder strap tension and shoulder pressure, whereas hip-belt use and then shoulder strap adjustment had the next greatest effects, respectively. While it is clear that researchers and practitioners are justified in focusing on load magnitude in backpack studies as it has the greatest effect on shoulder forces, hip-belt use and shoulder strap adjustment should also be examined further as they too may have significant effects on the demands placed on backpack users. Based on the present findings, school students should wear their backpacks with the least weight possible, use the hip-belt if present, allow a reasonable amount of looseness in the shoulder straps and should position the heaviest items closest to their back. However, more detailed work using human participants needs to be undertaken before these recommendations can be confirmed.

Carrying loads close to the trunk with a backpack causes a restrictive type of change in lung function in which Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) and Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 s (FEV1) are reduced without a corresponding decrement in the FEV1.FVC( - 1) %. It is not known whether this is due to the weight of the load acting on the chest or to the tightness of fit of the shoulder and chest straps and waist belt of the pack harness. This study examined FVC, FEV1, FEV1.FVC( - 1) %, peak expiratory flow (PEF), forced expiratory flow between 0.2 and 1.2 s (FEF0.2 - 1.2) after the start of expiration and between 25 and 75% of each FVC (FEF25 - 75%) in 12 healthy males wearing a 15 kg backpack in which the shoulder and chest straps and hip belt were loosened by 3 cm from a 'comfort fit' to achieve a 'loose pack' fit (LPF) and tightened by 3 cm from CF to achieve a 'tight pack' fit (TPF). In comparison with the control condition of no pack, a loose pack fit significantly reduced FVC (by 3.6%, p < 0.01), FEV1 (by 4.3%, p < 0.01) and FEF25 - 75% (by 8.4%, p < 0.01). A tight pack fit significantly reduced FVC (by 8.1%, p < 0.01) and FEV1 (by 9.1%, p < 0.001). It also significantly reduced FEF0.2 - 1.2 (by 7.3%, p < 0.05) and FEF25 - 75% (by 21%, p < 0.01). In comparison with a loose pack fit, the tight pack fit was associated with a significantly lower FVC (by 4.6%, p < 0.01), FEV1 (by 5.0%, p < 0.01), FEF25 - 75% (by 13.8%, p < 0.01) and a fall in FEF0.2 - 1.2 (by 5.5%). The latter was approaching significance (p = 0.077). There were no significant changes in FEV1.FVC( - 1)% and PEF. It is concluded that tightening the fit of a backpack significantly affects lung function in a manner that is typical of a restrictive change in lung function and is very similar in pattern to that of wearing a loosely fitted loaded backpack. The effect of tightness of fit is additional to that due to the weight of the load alone and may also reduce expiratory flow at low lung volumes.

Subjective perceptual methods have provided useful information in the laboratory about small differences in backpack design when physiological and biomechanical comparisons are ineffective, but have never been used in the field. This study therefore evaluated, in a controlled field trial with 10 male participants, the suitability of quantitative and qualitative subjective perceptual approaches to distinguish between subtle design differences in two backpacks, each loaded to 15 kg. In addition, initial quantitative subjective impressions about the two backpacks during a 15 min simulated 'in-shop' trial were compared with post-field trial backpack preference. In the simulated 'in-shop' trial the participants 'tried out' the backpack in a manner that was very similar to the way that they would normally try out a backpack as if they were considering buying one in an 'outdoor' shop. It included donning and doffing the pack several times and walking around the room wearing the backpack. In the controlled field trial, participants carried the two backpacks for approximately 15 min around a 1313 m hilly outdoor track at a self-selected walking pace which elicited a moderate exercise intensity. Seven participants preferred backpack A. Three preferred backpack B. The qualitative approach, which required participants to provide free-format written responses to semi-structured open-ended questions immediately after the field trial, successfully identified specific reasons underlying participants' preferences. The main reasons for preferring backpack A were better balance, weight distribution, stability up and down hill and over obstacles, fewer pressure points on their back and easier strap location and adjustment. The quantitative approach, which involved participants responding to written post-field trial questions on visual analogue or category ratio rating scales, was generally unsuccessful in distinguishing between backpacks. Thus, qualitative subjective perceptual methods appeared to be more useful than quantitative ones in distinguishing between backpacks and in identifying positive and negative design features under controlled field conditions in which participants carry a backpack at a moderately intense self-selected exercise level. However, since the quantitative approach had been successful in distinguishing between backpacks in an earlier similar study, in which participants exercised more intensely by walking uphill on a treadmill at a fixed pace, it is possible that the quantitative subjective perceptual approach may be capable of distinguishing between backpacks in the field if a fixed pace eliciting higher exercise intensity were to be used. Finally, since quantitative responses to questions about the backpacks after a short simulated 'in-shop' trial closely agreed with participants' post-field trial overall backpack preference, it is concluded that initial subjective impressions may be a good guide to backpack preference after limited field usage.

Office chairs have often been designed to promote a single 'correct' rather rigid and upright posture, yet it is acknowledged that allowing changes in posture is good ergonomics practice. The present study investigated office worker's preferences for a standard shaped typist's chair (ST) and a prototype multi-posture (PMP) office chair designed to allow its users a variety of sitting positions. Forty-two (22 male and 20 female) telesales personnel (12), clerical staff (12) and researchers (18) used ST or PMP in their workplace for the first week of a 2-week study (with an even number in each work area). The PMP chair was introduced to participants with a brief lecture on how to use it and with an information booklet. Following this, each participant completed a chair comfort questionnaire. In the second week, participants swapped chairs and again completed the chair comfort questionnaire. At the end of the second week participants were also asked to complete a separate questionnaire about the usability of the information booklet that accompanied the PMP chair. Statistically significant differences in subject's rating of the two chairs were observed in 7 out of 19 questions. On a 100 mm scale, the ST chair was rated as having a greater mean overall acceptability, desirability and suitability for body build than the PMP chair. Participants also claimed to achieve better posture in the ST chair, that they tipped forward less and were more satisfied with its width. Although the participants generally preferred the ST chair, the PMP chair received more favourable ratings among the researchers who were quite mobile in their work, and in whom there was a trend for less neck, shoulder and upper back discomfort. More participants reported an overall preference for the PMP chair. The findings suggest that a more aesthetically acceptable PMP chair should be developed, peoples' reasons for preferring a more traditionally designed chair should be explored, and that the effect of postural stability education on personal preconceptions should be examined to obtain an optimal combination of healthy sitting habits, comfort and aesthetic qualities in an office chair.

The weight of schoolbags and the prevalence of musculoskeletal symptoms amongst 140 students (70 third form students comprising 35 females and 35 males, and 70 sixth form students comprising 35 females and 35 males) from five New Zealand secondary schools was investigated. Schoolbag weight for third form students (mean age 13.6 years) was 13.2% of their body weight, while for sixth form students (mean age 17.1 years) it was 10.3% of their body weight. These weights may exceed the recommended guideline load limits for adult industrial workers. Musculoskeletal symptoms were reported by 77.1% of the students. Symptoms were most prevalent in the neck, shoulders, upper back and lower back. Although musculoskeletal symptoms are believed to be multifactorial in origin, the carriage of heavy schoolbags is a suspected contributory factor and may represent an overlooked daily physical stress for New Zealand secondary school students.