Search

BackgroundIn the Brazilian public health system, primary health care (PHC) is provided by the municipalities and is considered the entry level of the Unified Health System (SUS). Governmental pharmaceutical services (PharmSes) are part of the SUS, including PHC, and are the most significant way in which patients access medicine and services. Considering the diversity of the country, the municipalities have the autonomy to decide how PharmSes are implemented. Even though policies and procedures should be implemented as expected by policy makers and experts, municipality characteristics may interfere with implementation fidelity. Therefore, this study evaluated the degree to which the PharmSes in PHC were delivered as intended in Brazilian municipalities.MethodsWe analysed data from a secondary database originating from a cross-sectional nationwide study carried out by the Ministry of Health and the World Bank from 2013 to 2015. Data on 465 municipalities and the Federal District were collected from 4939 governmental PharmSes. A rating system comprising 43 indicators was developed and applied to the dataset to obtain the implementation degree (ID) of each PharmSe. Additionally, the IDs of the two PharmSes dimensions and the nine components were measured.ResultsOverall, the ID of the PharmSes in Brazilian PHC was evaluated as critical. The ID was critical in 81% of the municipalities (n = 369), incipient in 14% (n = 65) and unsatisfactory in 4.8% (n = 22). Regarding the PharmSes dimensions, the ‘medicine management’ (MM) ID was considered critical (Mean = 46%), while the ‘care management’ (CM) ID was incipient (Mean = 22%). In terms of the PharmSes components, the highest ID was achieved by ‘forecasting’ (58%). In contrast, ‘continuing education and counselling’ showed the lowest figure (ID = 11%) in the whole sample, followed by ‘information and communication’ and ‘teamwork’.ConclusionsThe degree to which PharmSes were implemented was critical (ID

This paper investigates difficulties related to access to medicines in SUS and factors associated with the inability to obtain medicines in SUS by non-communicable chronic disease (NCCD) patients who used this source for health care. We analyzed data from the National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines. First analysis included individuals aged 20 years and over, diagnosed with at least one NCCD, with indication of medicine treatment and follow up of this disease (s) with a physician from SUS, and who reported having obtained some of the medicines in use from the SUS. The difficulties of obtaining medicines from SUS were investigated based on dimensions of access to medicines. Among 5.155 individuals investigated, 65.4% were women, 40 years old or older and 54.3% residents of the Southeast region of Brazil. Aspects related to availability and waiting time to obtain medicines were the most significant reported barriers to access to medicines. Regional differences were found in basically all dimensions of access and the low availability of medicines in SUS pharmacies was the main reason cited for their search in private pharmacies.

Background To guarantee the right to health, the health system must also ensure access to medicines. Several financial arrangements to provide these technologies are implemented and range from the direct (either total or partial) to indirect payment by the patient, being necessary to evaluate its effect on access to medicines. However, to ensure access to medicines is not just about ensuring its availability, as this only materializes in its use. Thus, evaluation studies of interventions in access to medicines have been using indicators related to the health results and use of health services as its outcomes. Furthermore, as this relationship is not direct, it is important to critically assess the adequacy of these tools to measure this phenomenon and, additionally, the ability to use it in the Brazilian scenario. Therefore, this study sought to identify, describe, and analyze the use of these indicators as medicine access outcomes, through a review of the scientific literature. Methods An extensive literature review was done using a bibliographic database for a systematic review. The references were selected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the indicators from the papers retained were analyzed using the parameters of validity, measurability, reliability, and relevance. Results We have analyzed over 12,000 references of which 30 references were included, describing the use of 49 health outcomes and health service use indicators. The majority reported the use of health service utilization measures. In our evaluation, the best indicators for assessing the effects of co-payment intervention on access are the ones aimed at specific populations or symptomatic health conditions in which the response to the therapeutic treatment is known and occurs in a short period of time. It was evident the lack of information on the indicators analyzed as well as the limitation of the Brazilian secondary databases for its calculation. Conclusions This research showed the variety and heterogeneity of the indicators used in scientific studies. The best indicators for access to medicines are sought to measure the use of health services for symptomatic health conditions that are quickly responsive to pharmacological treatment, while the indicators related to worker productivity loss was the most suitable for health outcomes.

This article aims to describe the inappropriate use of medicines in the Brazilian urban population and to identify associated factors. We conducted a data analysis of a household survey carried out in Brazil in 2013–14. The sampling plan was done by clusters with representativeness of the urban population and large regions of the country, according to gender and age domains. For this analysis, we considered a sample of adults (≥20 years) who reported having chronic non-communicable diseases, medical indication for drug treatment and medicine use (n = 12 283). We evaluated the prevalence of inappropriate use in the domains: non-adherence, inappropriate use behaviour and inadequate care with medicines, all verified in the following groups of independent variables: demographic and socio-economic characteristics, health and pharmaceutical care, health status and use of medicines. Crude and adjusted prevalence ratios were obtained using robust Poisson regression. It was found 46.1% of people having at least one behaviour of inappropriate use of medicines. The worst results were found for the domain of inappropriate use behaviour, a situation of 36.6% of the users, which included unauthorized prescriber, inadequate source of information and indication of the medicines by non-authorized prescribers. The best result was found for the lack of medicines care, informed by only 4.6% of users who kept expired drugs at home. The inappropriate use of medicines was associated with gender (female), region of residence (Northeast), not visiting the doctor regularly or visiting more than one doctor, not having free access to medicines and using of five or more medicines. There was a high prevalence of inappropriate use, which was associated with both individual and health system characteristics pointing out the need to set priorities as for health education and public interventions.

Background Increasing medicines availability and affordability is a key goal of Brazilian health policies. “Farmácia Popular” (FP) Program is one of the government’s key strategies to achieve this goal. Under FP, antihypertension (HTN) and antiglycemic (DM) medicines have been provided at subsidized prices in private retail settings since 2006, and free of charge since 2011. We aim to assess the impact of sequential changes in FP benefits on patient affordability and government expenditures for HTN and DM treatment under the FP, and examine their implications for public financing mechanisms and program sustainability. Methods Longitudinal, retrospective study using interrupted time series to analyze: HTN and DM treatment coverage; total and per capita expenditure; percentage paid by MoH; and patient cost sharing. Analyzes were conducted in the dispensing database of the FP program (from 2006 to 2012). Results FP has increased its coverage over time; by December 2012 FP covered on average 13% of DM and 11.5% of HTN utilization, a growth of over 600 and 1500%, respectively. The overall cost per treatment to the MoH declined from R$36.43 (R$ = reais, the Brazilian currency) to 18.74 for HTN and from R$33.07to R$15.05 for DM over the period analyzed, representing a reduction in per capita cost greater than 50%. The amount paid by patients for the medicines covered increased over time until 2011, but then declined to zero. We estimate that to treat all patients in need for HTN and DM in 2012 under FP, the Government would need to expend 97% of the total medicines budget. Conclusions FP rapidly increased its coverage in terms of both program reach and proportion of cost subsidized during the period analyzed. Costs of individual HTN and DM treatments in FP were reduced after 2011 for both patients (free) and government (better negotiated prices). However, overall FP expenditures by MoH increased due to markedly increased utilization. The FP is sustainable as a complementary policy but cannot feasibly substitute for the distribution of medicines by the SUS.

This paper aims to analyse changes in the retail pharmaceutical market following policy changes in the Farmácia Popular Program (FP), a medicines subsidy program in Brazil. The retrospective longitudinal analyses focus on therapeutic class of agents acting on the renin-angiotensin system. Data obtained from QuintilesIMS (formerly IMS Health) included private retail pharmacy sales volume (pharmaceutical units) and sales values from 2002 to 2013. Analyses evaluated changes in market share following key FP policy changes. The therapeutic class was selected due to its relevance to hypertension treatment. Market share was analysed by therapeutic sub-classes and by individual company. Losartan as a single product accounted for the highest market share among angiotensin II antagonists. National companies had higher sales volume during the study period, while multinational companies had higher sales value. Changes in pharmaceutical market share coincided with the inclusion of specific products in the list of medicines covered by FP and with increases in or exemption from patient copayment. Resumo Este artigo visa analisar as mudanças no mercado de varejo farmacêutico, seguindo as alterações de diretiva no Programa Farmácia Popular (FP), que realiza subvenção de medicamentos no Brasil, em parceria pública privada. Foi realizada análise longitudinal retrospectiva dos medicamentos da classe terapêutica dos agentes que atuam sobre o sistema renina-angiotensina. Os dados obtidos do QuintilesIMS incluíram o varejo farmacêutico em termos do volume e valores de vendas de 2002 a 2013. Análises realizadas consideraram intervenções e reformas ocorridas no FP e seu impacto no mercado farmacêutico da classe terapêutica selecionada, devido a sua relevância para o tratamento da hipertensão. Também se examinou o comportamento do mercado tomando por base as empresas farmacêuticas produtoras. Losartan monodroga representou a maior fatia de mercado entre os antagonistas de angiotensina II. Empresas nacionais obtiveram maior volume de vendas durante o período de estudo, enquanto as empresas multinacionais exibiram maior valor de vendas. Mudanças no mercado farmacêutico coincidiram com a inclusão de produtos específicos na lista de medicamentos abrangidos pelo FP e com aumentos ou isenção de copagamento pelos pacientes.

Основные лекарства удовлетворяют приоритетные потребности населения в области здравоохранения. Политика, основанная на концепции основных лекарств, имеет решающее значение в улучшении здоровья и достижении устойчивого развития. Цель устойчивого развития 3.8 конкретно упоминает важность «доступности безопасных, эффективных, качественных и доступных по цене основных лекарств и вакцин для всех» в качестве центрального компонента всеобщего охвата медицинской помощью (ВОМП), а цель устойчивого развития 3.b подчёркивает необходимость разработки лекарств для устранения постоянно возникающих пробелов в отношении лечения. Признание важности основных лекарств - не новость. В 1985 г. на конференции в Найроби по рациональному использованию лекарств представители правительств и другие заинтересованные стороны предложили всеобъемлющий комплекс мер по разработке политики в области основных лекарств. Через 30 лет была созвана «Комиссия журнала Ланцет (Lancet) по основным лекарствам» (далее Комиссия) для изучения следующих вопросов: Какого прогресса удалось достичь? Какие проблемы ещё остаются для решения? Какие уроки были извлечены для информирования будущих подходов? И как можно использовать политику в области основных лекарств для продвижения ВОМП и внесения вклада в повестку глобального устойчивого развития? В настоящем докладе рассмотрены эти вопросы с намерением репозиционировать политику в области основных лекарств в повестке глобального развития. Комиссия определила пять областей, имеющих решающее значение для политики в области основных лекарств: оплата корзины основных лекарств, обеспечение ценовой доступности основных лекарств, гарантия их качества и безопасности, мероприятия, способствующие их качественному использованию, и разработка недостающих (отсутствующих) основных лекарств. Комиссия позиционировала политику в области основных лекарств в контексте текущих глобальных дебатов о балансировании политики в области торговли и интеллектуальной собственности с правами человека, об обеспечении безопасности здравоохранения, укреплении систем здравоохранения, ориентированных на людей, и улучшении доступности основных технологий. Во всех областях политики особое внимание было уделено совершенствованию принципов равенства и справедливости в доступе, укреплению соответствующих институтов и созданию подотчётности. В каждой из определённых областей Комиссия сформулировала рекомендации к действию, подтвердив тем самым позицию политики в области основных лекарств в качестве центрального компонента глобального здоровья и здравоохранения и повестки развития.

Following publication of the original article [1], we have been notified of a few errors in the figures

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate trends in the use of generic and non-generic medicines to treat hypertension and diabetes under the Farmácia Popular Program (FP) and its impact on generic medicines sales volume and market share in the Brazilian pharmaceutical market. METHODS: This longitudinal, retrospective study used interrupted time series design to analyze changes in monthly sales volume and proportion of medicines sales (market share) for oral antidiabetic and antihypertensive medicines for generic versus non-generic products. Analyses were conducted in a combined dataset that aggregate monthly sales volumes from the Farmácia Popular program and from the QuintilesIMS™ (IQVIA) national market sales data from January 2007 to December 2012. The Farmácia Popular program phases analyzed included: a) 2009 reductions in medicines reference prices (AFP-II) and b) 2011 implementation of free medicines program for hypertension and diabetes, the Saúde não tem preço (SNTP – Health has no price). RESULTS: Patterns of use for FP-covered antidiabetic and antihypertensive medicines were similar to their use in the market in general. After one year of the decreases in government subsidies in April 2010, market share of antidiabetic and antihypertensive medicines experienced relative declines of -54.5% and -59.9%, respectively. However, when FP-covered medicines were made free to patients, overall market volume for antidiabetic and antihypertensive generics increased dramatically, with 242.6% and 277.0% relative increases by February 2012, as well as non-generics with relative increase of 209.7% and 279% for antidiabetic and antihypertensive medicines, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Ministry of Health policies on the amount of patient cost sharing and on the choice of medicines on coverage lists have substantial impacts on overall generic sales volume in retail pharmacies.

O objetivo foi estimar a prevalência do uso de adoçantes pela população adulta brasileira e características dos usuários. Análise de dados da Pesquisa Nacional de Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM, 2014), um inquérito nacional de base populacional. O desfecho de interesse foi o uso autorreferido de adoçantes entre brasileiros com 20 anos ou mais. As variáveis analisadas foram sexo, idade em anos completos, região do Brasil, escolaridade em anos completos e classificação econômica segundo o Critério Classificação Econômica Brasil da Associação Brasileira de Empresas de Pesquisa (ABEP). Os indicadores das condições de saúde foram: relato de doença crônica não transmissíveis (DCNT), número de DCNT e índice de massa corporal (IMC). A prevalência do uso de adoçantes na população adulta brasileira foi de 13,4% (IC95%: 12,5-14,3), sendo maior entre as pessoas do sexo feminino e no grupo com 60 anos ou mais, nas regiões Nordeste e Sudeste, entre pessoas da classe econômica A/B e entre indivíduos obesos. As pessoas com doenças crônicas (em especial diabetes) foram as que mostraram maior prevalência de uso de adoçantes, sendo o uso maior quanto maior o número de comorbidades relatadas. A prevalência de uso de adoçantes foi de 13,4% e mostrou-se associada a características sociodemográficas e de saúde. The objective was to estimate the prevalence of artificial sweetener use by the adult Brazilian population and users’ characteristics. Analysis of data from the Brazilian National Survey on Access, Utilization, and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines (PNAUM, 2014), a nationwide population-based survey. The target outcome was self-reported use of sweeteners by Brazilians 20 years and older. The independent variables were sex, age, major geographic region of Brazil, schooling in complete years, and economic status according to the Brazilian Economic Classification Criterion of the Brazilian Association of Research Companies (ABEP). The health condition indicators were: self-reported noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), number of NCDs, and body mass index (BMI). Prevalence of sweetener use in the Brazilian adult population was 13.4% (95%CI: 12.5-14.3), and it was higher in females and in persons 60 years or older, in the Northeast and Southeast, among individuals from economic classes A and B, and among obese individuals. Persons with chronic diseases (especially diabetes) showed the highest prevalence of use of sweeteners, and their use increased with the number of reported comorbidities. Prevalence of use of artificial sweeteners was 13.4% and was associated with sociodemographic and health characteristics. El objetivo fue estimar la prevalencia del uso de edulcorantes por parte de la población adulta brasileña y las características de los usuarios. Análisis de datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Acceso, Utilización y Promoción del Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM, 2014), una encuesta nacional de base poblacional. El resultado de interés fue el uso autoinformado de edulcorantes entre brasileños con 20 años o más. Las variables analizadas fueron: sexo, edad (años completados), región de Brasil, escolaridad (años completados), así como la clasificación económica según el Criterio Clasificación Económica Brasil de la Asociación Brasileña de Empresas de Investigación (ABEP). Los indicadores de las condiciones de salud fueron: informe de enfermedades crónicas (DCNT), número de DCNT e índice de masa corporal (IMC). La prevalencia del uso de edulcorantes en la población adulta brasileña fue de un 13,4% (IC95%: 12,5-14,3), siendo mayor entre las personas de sexo femenino y en el grupo con 60 años o más, en las regiones Nordeste y Sudeste, entre personas de clase económica A/B y entre individuos obesos. Las personas con enfermedades crónicas (en especial diabetes) fueron las que mostraron una mayor prevalencia de uso de edulcorantes, siendo el uso mayor, cuanto mayor fuera el número de comorbilidades informadas. Conclusiones: la prevalencia de uso de edulcorantes fue de un 13,4% y se mostró asociada a características sociodemográficas y de salud.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of multimorbidity among Brazilian adults and its association with socioeconomic indicators. METHODS: Cross-sectional study that used data from the Pesquisa Nacional Sobre Acesso, Utilizacao e Promocao do Uso Racional de Medicamentos no Brasil (PNAUM – Brazilian National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines), carried out between 2013 and 2014. The definition of multimorbidity was the coexistence, in a single individual, of two or more chronic diseases, measured through a list of 14 morbidities (self-reported medical diagnosis throughout life). Economic status and educational level were the socioeconomic indicators used, being the inequalities assessed through the Slope Index of Inequality (SII) and the Concentration Index, stratified by gender. RESULTS: The study comprehended 23,329 adults (52.8% of which were women), with an average age of 37.9 years. Hypertension and high cholesterol levels were the most prevalent conditions. The prevalence of multimorbidity was of 10.9% (95%CI 10.1–11.7) representing nearly 11 million individuals in Brazil, of which 14.5% (95%CI 13.5–15.4) were women and 6.8% (95%CI 5.9–7.8) were men. The occurrence of multimorbidity was similar according to the socioeconomic indicators. In the inequality analysis, we observed absolute and relative differences in men with a higher purchasing power (SII = 3.7; 95%CI 0.3–7.0) and higher educational level (CIX = 7.1; 95%CI 0.9–14.7), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The frequency of comorbidities in Brazilian adults is high, especially in absolute terms. We only observed socioeconomic inequalities in multimorbidities among men.

Brazil and the United States share important commonalities and differences regarding Internet penetration, health literacy, and pharmaceutical coverage. In both countries, consumers are increasingly turning to the Internet in search of information and acquisition. Similarly, drug makers and distributors have used the Internet to advertise and market their products. Use and abuse of the Internet for prescription and over-the-counter drugs still differ due to government pharmaceutical policies that affect access and price, as well as the socioeconomic differences between the two societies. This chapter provides a review of the academic and gray literature about Brazil and US Internet-based medicine use, highlighting how the two cases compare and contrast in terms of access and appropriate use. Lastly, the chapter discusses the implications of these two countries’ realities in terms of market characteristics, government regulations, and growing pharmaceuticalization through the use of new digital media.

Resumo: Este artigo teve como objetivo identificar as fontes de obtenção de medicamentos utilizadas por usuários do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS) com relato de doenças crônicas, caracterizando tal população quanto a variáveis demográficas, socioeconômicas e de saúde nas diferentes regiões do Brasil. Foram analisados dados da Pesquisa Nacional sobre o Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos no Brasil (PNAUM), um estudo transversal de base populacional. A variável dependente foi a “fonte de obtenção de medicamentos” e foram analisadas associações com variáveis demográficas, socioeconômicas e com o estado de saúde. Os usuários que obtiveram cuidado e medicamentos unicamente no SUS foram aqui designados como SUS-exclusivos. Cerca de 39% das pessoas obtiveram seus medicamentos exclusivamente em farmácias do SUS e 28,5% recorreram a outras fontes. Foram encontrados 42,9%, 41,8%, 40,2%, 31%, usuários SUS-exclusivos, respectivamente, no Sudeste, Sul, Norte, e Nordeste. Os usuários do SUS têm como fonte primária de medicamentos o próprio SUS, entretanto há uma participação relevante de outras fontes de obtenção, indicando problemas no acesso dentro do SUS. No Sul e Sudeste, a população busca menos a farmácia privada do que no Nordeste e Norte do país. Abstract: The article aimed to identify the sources of medicines for users of the Brazilian Unified National Health System (SUS) that reported chronic non-communicable diseases, characterizing the group according to demographic, socioeconomic, and health variables in the different regions of Brazil. Data were analyzed from the National Survey on Access, Use, and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines in Brazil (PNAUM), a cross-sectional population-based study. The dependent variable was “source of medicines”, and the associations were analyzed with demographic, socioeconomic, and health status variables. Users that obtained care and medicines solely in the SUS were designated here as SUS-exclusive. Some 39% of persons obtained their medicines from SUS pharmacies and 28.5% from other sources. The study found 42.9%, 41.8%, 40.2%, and 31% of exclusive SUS users in the Southeast, South, North, and Northeast regions of Brazil, respectively. SUS users have the SUS as their primary source of medicines, but there is also a relevant share from other sources, suggesting problems with access in the SUS. In the South and Southeast regions, the population relies less on private pharmacies than in the Northeast and North. Resumen: El objetivo de este artículo fue identificar las fuentes de obtención de medicamentos, utilizados por usuarios del Sistema Único de Salud brasileño (SUS), con antecedentes de enfermedades crónicas, caracterizando tanto a la población, como las variables demográficas, socioeconómicas y de salud, en las diferentes regiones del país. Se analizaron los datos de la Encuesta Nacional sobre el Acceso, Utilización y Promoción del Uso Racional de Medicamentos en Brasil (PNAUM), un estudio transversal de base poblacional. La variable dependiente fue la ‘fuente de obtención de medicamentos’ y se analizaron asociaciones con variables demográficas, socioeconómicas y con el estado de salud. Los usuarios que recibieron cuidados y medicamentos únicamente en el SUS fueron designados aquí como SUS exclusivos. Cerca de un 39% de las personas obtuvieron sus medicamentos exclusivamente en farmacias del SUS y un 28,5% recurrieron a otras fuentes. Se encontraron un 42,9%, 41,8%, 40,2%, 31%, usuarios SUS exclusivos, respectivamente, en el Sudeste, Sur, Norte, y Nordeste. Los usuarios del SUS tienen como fuente primaria de medicamentos el propio SUS, no obstante, existe una participación relevante de otras fuentes de obtención, indicando problemas en el acceso dentro del SUS. En el Sur y Sudeste, la población busca menos la farmacia privada que en el Nordeste y Norte del país.

Resumo: O presente trabalho tem como objetivo descrever a prevalência e fatores associados a eventos adversos a medicamentos (EAM) referidos por usuários de medicamentos no Brasil. Trata-se de um estudo transversal de base populacional, realizado no período de setembro de 2013 a fevereiro de 2014, com dados coletados na Pesquisa Nacional sobre Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM). Foram consideradas todas as pessoas que referiram o uso de medicamentos; entre elas, foram identificadas as que referiram pelo menos um problema com o uso do medicamento. Realizou-se uma análise descritiva para estimar a prevalência e os intervalos de 95% de confiança (IC95%) de EAM entre as variáveis estudadas, e foram calculadas as razões de prevalência bruta e ajustada, pela regressão de Poisson, na investigação dos fatores associados aos EAM. A prevalência de EAM no Brasil foi de 6,6% (IC95%: 5,89-7,41), sendo maior e estatisticamente significante após a realização da análise multivariada, entre pessoas do sexo feminino; residentes nas regiões Centro-oeste e Nordeste; que consumiam maior número de medicamentos; que percebiam seu estado de saúde como “ruim”; e que se automedicavam. Os EAM foram mais relatados para os medicamentos fluoxetina, diclofenaco e amitriptilina. Os EAM mais referidos pelos entrevistados foram sonolência, dor epigástrica e náuseas. Os EAM mais referidos pelos entrevistados foram de natureza leve, considerados evitáveis e estiveram associados a medicamentos de uso frequente pela população. Em razão desse estudo, foi possível conhecer a dimensão do problema ocasionado pelo uso de medicamentos no Brasil. Resumen: El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo describir la prevalencia y factores asociados a eventos adversos con medicamentos (EAM), informados por usuarios de medicamentos en Brasil. Se trata de un estudio transversal de base poblacional, realizado durante el período de septiembre de 2013 a febrero de 2014, con datos recogidos en la Encuesta Nacional sobre el Acceso, Utilización y Promoción del Uso Racional de Medicamentos en Brasil (PNAUM). Se consideraron a todas las personas que informaron del uso de medicamentos; entre ellas, se identificaron a las que informaron de por lo menos un problema con el uso del medicamento. Se realizó un análisis descriptivo para estimar la prevalencia y los intervalos de confianza a 95% (IC95%) de EAM entre las variables estudiadas, y se calcularon las razones de prevalencia bruta y ajustada, por la regresión de Poisson, en la investigación de los factores asociados a los EAM. La prevalencia de EAM en Brasil fue de un 6,6% (IC95%: 5,89-7,41), siendo mayor y estadísticamente significante tras la realización del análisis multivariado, entre personas del sexo femenino; residentes en las regiones Centro-Oeste y Nordeste; que consumían un mayor número de medicamentos; que percibían su estado de salud como “malo”; y que se automedicaban. Se informaron de más EAM en medicamentos como: fluoxetina, diclofenaco y amitriptilina. Los EAM más referidos por los entrevistados fueron somnolencia, dolor epigástrico y náuseas. Los EAM más referidos por los entrevistados fueron de naturaleza leve, considerados evitables y estuvieron asociados a medicamentos de uso frecuente por la población. Con motivo de este estudio, fue posible conocer la dimensión del problema ocasionado por el uso de medicamentos en Brasil. Abstract: The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence of adverse drug events (ADEs) and associated factors reported by users of medicines in Brazil. This was a cross-sectional population-based study conducted from September 2013 to February 2014 with data from the Brazilian National Survey on Access, Use, and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines (PNAUM). The study included all individuals that reported the use of medicines and identified, among them, all those reporting at least one problem with the medicine’s use. A descriptive analysis was performed to estimate ADE prevalence and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) among the target variables. Crude and adjusted prevalence ratios were calculated using Poisson regression to investigate factors associated with ADEs. Overall ADE prevalence in Brazil was 6.6% (95%CI: 5.89-7.41), and after multivariate analysis, higher prevalence was associated with female gender, residence in the Central and Northeast regions, consumption of more medicines, “bad” self-rated health, and self-medication. The drugs most frequently reported with ADEs were fluoxetine, diclofenac, and amitriptyline. The most frequent ADEs were somnolence, epigastric pain, and nausea. Most reported ADEs were mild, avoidable, and associated with medicines used frequently by the population. The study provided knowledge on the size of the problem with use of medicines in Brazil.

Objectives‘Farmácia Popular’ (FP) programme was launched in 2004, expanded in 2006 and changed the cost sharing for oral hypoglycaemic (OH) and antihypertensive (AH) medicines in 2009 and in 2011. This paper describes patterns of usage and continuity of coverage for OH and AH medicines following changes in patient cost sharing in the FP.Study designInterrupted time series study using retrospective administrative data.MethodsMonthly programme participation (PP) and proportion of days covered (PDC) were the two outcome measures. The open cohort included all patients with two or more dispensings for a given study medicine in 2008–2012. The interventions were an increase in patient cost sharing in 2009 and zero patient cost sharing for key medicines in 2011.ResultsA total of 3.6 and 9.5 million patients receiving treatment for diabetes and hypertension, respectively, qualified for the study. Before the interventions, PP was growing by 7.3% per month; median PDC varied by medicine from 50% to 75%. After patient cost sharing increased in 2009, PP reduced by 56.5% and PDC decreased for most medicines (median 60.3%). After the 2011 free medicine programme, PP surged by 121 000 new dispensings per month and PDC increased for all covered medicines (80.7%).ConclusionCost sharing was found to be a barrier to continuity of treatment in Brazil’s private sector FP programme. Making essential medicines free to patients appear to increase participation and continuity of treatment to clinically beneficial levels (PDC >80%).

Resumo A necessidade de aumento do acesso aos medicamentos, aliada à limitada aceitação dos genéricos, tem suscitado a busca de intervenções eficazes para a sua promoção. Esta revisão sistemática realizou levantamento de intervenções voltadas à promoção do uso dos medicamentos genéricos e seus impactos. Foram incluídos ensaios randomizados, ensaios controlados não randomizados, estudos tipo antes e depois e séries temporais interrompidas. As análises quanto ao impacto das intervenções e qualidade das evidências seguiram as orientações da Cochrane. A classificação do impacto das intervenções variou de muito grande a muito pequeno e da qualidade da evidência de alta a muito baixa. Selecionou-se 17 artigos com público alvo de prescritores, farmacêuticos e usuários. As intervenções utilizadas foram educativas, de incentivo financeiro, uso de prescrição eletrônica e gerencial. Intervenções aplicadas aos prescritores tiveram impacto pequeno a médio, com qualidade muito baixa a baixa; aos farmacêuticos, impacto pequeno e qualidade muito baixa; aos usuários mostraram impacto médio e grande com qualidade muito baixa e baixa. São necessários mais estudos de boa qualidade abordando as intervenções.

Brazil’s pharmaceutical policies have undergone significant changes in recent decades resulting in improved access, surveillance, and support for national industry. This chapter highlights the numerous challenges in upholding the right to health embedded in the Brazil’s 1988 Constitution and implementing a universal health system. Difficulties include geographic diversity, epidemiological variation, and entrenched social inequalities in a continental-sized country; changing patterns of morbidity and mortality, associated with communicable and noncommunicable diseases that require low-, medium-, and high-complex medical care; and continued dependency on imported pharmaceutical products. The structure of the national health system is also discussed in detail along with the country’s pharmaceutical situation focusing on past and recent regulations and results. An overview of the pharmaceutical market, including local production and manufacturing of active pharmaceutical ingredients and finished dosage forms, is provided. The “Health Industrial Complex” as a political commitment linking health system needs with industrial policies is briefly described. The chapter also highlights regulations, financing and supply systems, as well as efforts to promote the rational use of medicines and data collection systems of adverse drug reactions. Finally, we end the chapter discussing Brazil’s alignment with international trends, such as the United Nation’s 2030 Development Agenda, and the way forward for future programs and efforts. Despite ongoing challenges, medicine policies have played a central role in the Brazilian government’s efforts to improve social conditions and push more than 26 million people out of extreme poverty.

No contexto da gestão pública contemporânea, este estudo teve por objetivo verificar o desempenho de distintos aspectos da assistência farmacêutica em municípios da Paraíba. Trata-se de uma pesquisa descritiva, realizada a partir de relatórios de fiscalização dos municípios (no período de 2003 a 2010), produzidos pela Controladoria-Geral da União (CGU). O estudo apontou que 98,1% dos municípios apresentaram pelo menos um problema na gestão de recursos e/ou de serviços farmacêuticos; que em 52,7% o controle de estoque não existia ou era deficiente; que em 52,7% não foram observadas as normas de aquisição de medicamentos; que em 38,2% foram constatados desvios de recursos e fraudes do programa; e que em 27,3% dos municípios faltavam medicamentos básicos. Conclui-se que houve importantes problemas de gestão que afetaram processos e a qualidade da prestação dos serviços aos cidadãos. En el contexto de la gestión pública contemporánea este trabajo tuve como objetivo verificar el disempeño de diferentes aspectos de los servicios farmacéuticos en municipalidades del estado de Paraíba. Tratase de un estudio descriptivo, a partir de los informes de inspección en las municipalidades (de 2003 a 2010), producidos por la Controladoria Geral da União (CGU). Si encontró que 98.1% de las municipalidades tienen al menos un problema en la gestión de recursos y/o servicios farmacéuticos; que en 52.7% el control de inventario no existía o era deficiente así como no fueron observadas la aplicación de las reglas de adquisición de medicamentos; que en 38.2% se encontraron desvío de recursos y fraude; y que en 27.3% de las municipalidades hay falta de medicamentos básicos. Si concluyó que había problemas de gestión que afectan a importantes procesos así como a la calidad de la prestación de servicios a los ciudadanos. In the context of contemporary public management, this study aimed to check the performance of various aspects of pharmaceutical service in towns of Paraíba, Brazil. This is a descriptive research, conducted by means of inspection reports from the towns (within the period from 2003 to 2010), produced by the Office of the Inspector General of the Union (CGU). The study has found that 98.1% of the towns had at least one problem in the management of resources and/or pharmaceutical services; that in 52.7% stock control did not exist or it was deficient; that in 52.7% the rules for acquiring medicines were not observed; that in 38.2% misappropriation of resources and fraud concerning the program were found; and that in 27.3% of towns there was lack of basic medicines. It was concluded that there were important management problems that affected processes and the quality of services provided to citizens.

Este estudo tem como objetivo o uso racional de medicamentos (URM) entre indivíduos com Hipertensão Arterial (HA) e/ou Diabetes Mellitus (DM) atendidos em unidades básicas de saúde no município do Rio de Janeiro. Trata-se de estudo transversal utilizando os dados de inquérito domiciliar realizado de janeiro a fevereiro de 2010. Foram elaborados indicadores para mensurar a taxa de adesão ao tratamento, automedicação e cuidados domiciliares relacionados aos medicamentos. O tratamento dos dados incluiu análise uni e multivariada. Dos 547 pacientes entrevistados, 77,5% relataram não costumar deixar sobrar medicamentos e 80,3% relataram não costumar esquecer de tomá-los. Quase a totalidade dos entrevistados relataram apenas tomar medicamentos prescritos por prescritores. Metade dos pacientes não tinham medicamentos com validade vencida ou embalagem danificada no domicílio. Os testes estatísticos mostraram que houve maior uso racional entre hipertensos, indivíduos casados, que trabalham, que referem receber orientações de seu médico sobre dieta e exercício físico e que não faltaram a consultas na unidade básica de saúde nos 6 meses anteriores à pesquisa. O achados reforçam a importância da atenção primária em saúde para a promoção do URM. This study focuses on the rational use of medicines (RUM) by hypertensive and/or diabetic patients treated in primary health care units in the city of Rio de Janeiro. It involves a cross-sectional study conducted between January and February 2010. Indicators were created considering the following aspects: adherence to prescribed medicine, self-medication and how patients store medicines within their households. Univariate and multivariate data analysis was performed. Of the 547 patients studied, 77.5% reported that they usually take the entire course of medicines and 80.3% reported that they tend not to forget to take them. Almost all respondents reported that they only take medications prescribed by authorized health professionals. Half of the patients had no expired medicines or damaged medicine packages in the home. Statistical tests revealed that RUM is higher among hypertensive individuals who are married and working, who mention receiving medical guidance about diet and physical exercise, and who have not missed any scheduled medical appointments at the primary health care unit within the 6 months before this research was conducted. The findings emphasize the importance of primary health care in promoting the rational use of medicines.

Resumo: Este estudo compara a percepção, conhecimento e uso de medicamentos genéricos em adultos de Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, por meio de dois estudos transversais de base populacional realizados em 2002 e 2012. Os desfechos estudados foram: (a) prevalência de utilização de medicamentos genéricos; (b) proporção de uso de medicamentos genéricos entre os demais medicamentos; (c) percepção dos usuários sobre preço e qualidade dos medicamentos genéricos; (d) conhecimento dos usuários sobre medicamentos genéricos; e (e) estratégias de aquisição de medicamentos. A prevalência de uso de medicamentos genéricos aumentou de 3,6% (IC95%: 3,0-4,3) para 26,1% (IC95%: 24,5-27,7) no período de dez anos. A percepção sobre preço e qualidade dos medicamentos genéricos se manteve estável, a identificação das características que diferenciam os medicamentos genéricos dos demais medicamentos melhorou (p < 0,001) e o erro de classificação de medicamento diminuiu (p < 0,001). Houve um aumento significativo na estratégia de aquisição de medicamentos pela substituição do medicamento prescrito pelo medicamento genérico. Entre 2002 e 2012, aumentou o conhecimento e uso de medicamentos genéricos, enquanto a percepção quanto ao menor preço e qualidade equivalente mantiveram-se elevadas. Abstract: This study compared the perception, knowledge, and use of generic drugs by adults in Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil, using two cross-sectional population-based studies from 2002 and 2012. Study outcomes were: (a) prevalence of use of generics; (b) generics as a proportion of all medication; (c) users' perceptions of prices and quality; (d) users' knowledge of generics; and (e) strategies for acquisition of medicines. Prevalence of generics use increased from 3.6% (95%CI: 3.0-4.3) to 26.1% (95%CI: 24.5-27.7) in the 10-year period. Perceptions of prices and quality of generics remained stable, identification of characteristics that distinguish generics from other drugs improved (p < 0.001), and drug classification errors decreased (p < 0.001). There was a significant increase in acquiring medication by replacing prescribed drugs with generics. Between 2002 and 2012 there was an increase in knowledge and use of generics, while perception of lower prices and equivalent quality remained high. Resumen: Este estudio compara la percepción, conocimiento y uso de medicamentos genéricos en adultos de Pelotas, Río Grande do Sul, Brasil, a través de dos estudios transversales de base poblacional, realizados en 2002 y 2012. Los resultados estudiados fueron: (a) prevalencia de utilización de medicamentos genéricos; (b) proporción de uso de medicamentos genéricos entre los demás medicamentos; (c) percepción de los usuarios sobre el precio y calidad de los medicamentos genéricos; (d) conocimiento de los usuarios sobre medicamentos genéricos y (e) estrategias de adquisición de medicamentos. La prevalencia de uso de medicamentos genéricos aumentó de 3,6% (IC95%: 3,0-4,3) a 26,1% (IC95%: 24,5-27,7) en un período de 10 años. La percepción sobre el precio y calidad de los medicamentos genéricos se mantuvo estable, la identificación de las características que diferencian los medicamentos genéricos de los demás medicamentos mejoró (p < 0,001) y el error de clasificación de medicamentos disminuyó (p < 0,001). Hubo un aumento significativo en la estrategia de adquisición de medicamentos, a través de la sustitución del medicamento prescrito por el medicamento genérico. Entre 2002 y 2012 aumentó el conocimiento y uso de medicamentos genéricos, mientras que la percepción en lo referente al menor precio y calidad equivalente, se mantuvieron elevadas.

Resumo Este artigo tem como objetivo analisar a evolução da assistência farmacêutica no contexto da atenção primária (APS) no período 2008-2014, com foco na seleção, financiamento e aquisição de medicamentos. Foi empreendido estudo retrospectivo que utilizou como fontes de dados documentos administrativos da Secretaria Municipal de Saúde do Rio de Janeiro (SMS-RJ), além de base de dados secundários. Encontrou-se ampliação da diversidade de itens ofertados para a APS de 57 em 2008 para 222 em 2014. O gasto real em medicamentos liquidado pela prefeitura cresceu 38% no período e houve inversão, a partir de 2010, da proporção de medicamento da APS em relação aos hospitalares, alcançando 2,4 vezes em 2014, ano em que o gasto público em medicamentos da APS per capita foi 9% maior que o valor pactuado entre os três entes federados. Pode-se concluir que houve mudanças importantes na assistência farmacêutica do município do Rio de Janeiro no período que sucedeu a reforma da APS realizada, com o aumento das condições com cobertura terapêutica e expansão do financiamento de medicamentos. O crescimento do gasto público per capita em medicamentos acima do valor pactuado suscita a necessidade de intensificar as medidas de racionalização gerencial. Abstract This article aims to analyze the development of pharmaceutical services in the context of the primary health care (PHC) in the period 2008- 2014, focusing on selection, procurement and financing of medicines. A retrospective study was undertaken, using as data sources administrative documents of Rio de Janeiro Municipality Health Secretariat (SMS-RJ) as well as secondary database. We found a growth of numbers medicines offered for PHC of 57 items in 2008 to 222 in 2014. Actual spending on drugs paid by the city has grown 38% in the period, with a reversal from 2010, of the proportion of PHC related to tertiary care drugs, reaching 2.4 times in 2014, the year that public spending on medicines per capita of PHC was 9% greater than the value agreed between the three federal levels. It can be concluded that there have been important changes in pharmaceutical services in Rio de Janeiro Municipality in the period following the reform of PHC held in this territory, with increasing the conditions for therapeutic coverage and increased drug funding. The growth of per capita public spending on medicines above the agreed value raises the need to strengthen the rationalization of management measures.

OBJECTIVE To analyze the existence of differences in the use of generic medicines in Brazil according to demographic and socioeconomic variables and acquisition sources of the medicines. METHODS Population-based cross-sectional study, conducted with data from the Pesquisa Nacional de Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM – National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines). Data collection took place between September, 2013 and February, 2014 in homes of Brazilian cities (urban area). The use of medicines has been investigated in relation to the treatment of chronic diseases and, in the case of acute events, regarding use over the previous 15 days. Generics were identified by visualization of packaging presented by the users of the medicines. The independent variables used were sex, age, education level, economic class, and region of the Country. The statistical significance of differences between the groups was evaluated by Pearson’s Chi-squared test, considering a 5% significance level. RESULTS The prevalence of generic medicines use was 45.5% (95%CI 43.7–47.3). There was no difference considering education level. The prevalence was higher in females (47.0%; 95%CI 44.9–49.0) than in males (43.1%; 95%CI 40.5–45.8), and were higher with increasing age. Generic medicines were more used in the economic class C (47.0%; 95%CI 44.9–49.1) and in the South (50.6%; 95%CI 46.6–54.6) and Southeast (49.9%; 95%CI 46.8–53.0) regions. Generics accounted for 37.3% of the medicines provided by the Brazilian Unified Health System. CONCLUSIONS Currently, there is a choice of purchase or free provision by the Brazilian Unified Health System, characterized by quality assurance and reduced price regarding branded medicines considered as reference. In the private market, a considerable part of the population is choosing generic medicines thanks to the availability of this option for virtually all medicines most used by the population. RESUMO OBJETIVO Analisar se há diferença no uso de medicamentos genéricos no Brasil segundo variáveis demográficas, socioeconômicas e fontes de obtenção dos medicamentos. MÉTODOS Estudo transversal de base populacional, conduzido com dados da Pesquisa Nacional de Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM), com coleta de dados entre setembro de 2013 e fevereiro de 2014 em residências de municípios brasileiros urbanos. O uso dos medicamentos foi investigado em relação ao tratamento de doenças crônicas e, no caso de eventos agudos, quanto ao uso nos últimos 15 dias. Os genéricos foram identificados por visualização das embalagens apresentadas pelos usuários dos medicamentos. As variáveis independentes utilizadas foram sexo, idade, escolaridade, classe econômica e região do País. A avaliação da significância estatística das diferenças entre os grupos foi analisada pelo teste Qui-quadrado de Pearson, considerando nível de significância de 5%. RESULTADOS A prevalência de uso de genéricos foi de 45,5% (IC95% 43,7–47,3). Não houve diferença por escolaridade, as prevalências foram maiores no sexo feminino (47,0%; IC95% 44,9–49,0) em relação ao masculino (43,1%; IC95% 40,5–45,8) e foram crescentes com o aumento da idade. Maiores usos de genéricos foram encontrados na classe econômica C (47,0%; IC95% 44,9–49,1) e nas regiões Sul (50,6%; IC95% 46,6-54,6) e Sudeste (49,9%; IC95% 46,8–53,0). Observou-se ainda que os genéricos representaram 37,3% dos medicamentos disponibilizados pelo Sistema Único de Saúde . CONCLUSÕES Pode-se concluir que hoje existe uma alternativa de compra ou fornecimento gratuito pelo Sistema Único de Saúde, caracterizada por garantia de qualidade e preço reduzido em relação aos medicamentos de marca comercial considerados como referência. No mercado privado, boa parte da população está optando pelo uso de medicamentos genéricos, graças à disponibilidade dessa opção para praticamente todos os medicamentos mais utilizados pela população.

Objetivo: analisar a prevalência e os fatores associados à utilização de medicamentos por automedicação no Brasil. Métodos: este estudo transversal de base populacional foi realizado com dados da Pesquisa Nacional de Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de medicamentos (PNAUM), coletados de setembro de 2013 a fevereiro de 2014, por meio de entrevistas em domicílio. Todas as pessoas que referiram usar qualquer medicamento sem prescrição por médico ou dentista foram classificadas como praticantes de automedicação. Foram calculadas razões de prevalência bruta e ajustada (regressão de Poisson) e seus respectivos intervalos de confiança de 95% na investigação dos fatores associados ao consumo de medicamentos por automedicação. As variáveis independentes foram: aspectos sociodemográficos, de condições de saúde e de acesso e utilização de serviços de saúde. Adicionalmente, foram identificados os medicamentos mais consumidos por automedicação. Resultados: a prevalência da automedicação no Brasil foi de 16,1% (IC95% 15,0–17,5), sendo maior na região Nordeste (23,8%; IC95% 21,6–26,2). Após análise ajustada, automedicação mostrou-se associada a ser do sexo feminino, pertencer às faixas etárias 10-19 anos, 20-29 anos, 40-59 anos e 60 anos ou mais, residir na região Norte, Nordeste ou Centro-Oeste, e ter uma ou duas ou mais doenças crônicas. Os analgésicos e os relaxantes musculares foram os grupos terapêuticos mais utilizados por automedicação, sendo a dipirona o fármaco mais consumido. No geral, a maioria dos medicamentos usados por automedicação foram classificados como isentos de prescrição (65,5%). Conclusões: a automedicação é prática corrente no Brasil e envolve, principalmente, o uso de medicamentos isentos de prescrição, devendo os usuários ficarem atentos aos seus possíveis riscos. Objective: to analyze the prevalence and associated factors regarding the use of medicines by self-medication in Brazil. Methods: this cross-sectional population-based study was conducted using data from the PNAUM (National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines), collected between September 2013 and February 2014 by interviews at the homes of the respondents. All people who reported using any medicines not prescribed by a doctor or dentist were classified as self-medication practitioners. Crude and adjusted prevalence ratios (Poisson regression) and their respective 95% confidence intervals were calculated in order to investigate the factors associated with the use of self-medication by medicines. The independent variables were: sociodemographic characteristics, health conditions and access to and use of health services. In addition, the most commonly consumed medicines by self-medication were individually identified. Results: the self-medication prevalence in Brazil was 16.1% (95%CI 15.0–17.5), with it being highest in the Northeast region (23.8%; 95%CI 21.6–26.2). Following the adjusted analysis, self-medication was observed to be associated with females, inhabitants from the North, Northeast and Midwest regions and individuals that have had one, or two or more chronic diseases. Analgesics and muscle relaxants were the therapeutic groups most used for self-medication, with dipyrone being the most consumed medicines. In general, most of the medicines used for self-medication were classified as non-prescriptive (65.5%). Conclusions: self-medication is common practice in Brazil and mainly involves the use of non-prescription medicines; therefore, the users of such should be made aware of the possible risks.

OBJECTIVE To analyze factors associated with low adherence to drug treatment for chronic diseases in Brazil. METHODS Analysis of data from Pesquisa Nacional sobre Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM - Brazilian Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines), a population-based cross-sectional household survey, based on a probabilistic sample of the Brazilian population. We analyzed the association between low adherence to drug treatment measured by the Brief Medication Questionnaire and demographic, socioeconomic, health, care and prescription factors. We used Poisson regression model to estimate crude and adjusted prevalence ratios, their respective 95% confidence interval (95%CI) and p-value (Wald test). RESULTS The prevalence of low adherence to drug treatment for chronic diseases was 30.8% (95%CI 28.8-33.0). The highest prevalence of low adherence was associated with individuals: young adults; no education; resident in the Northeast and Midwest Regions of Brazil; paying part of the treatment; poor self-perceived health; three or more diseases; reported limitations caused by a chronic disease; using five drugs or more. CONCLUSIONS Low adherence to drug treatment for chronic diseases in Brazil is relevant, and regional and demographic differences and those related to patients’ health care and therapy regime require coordinated action between health professionals, researchers, managers and policy makers. RESUMO OBJETIVO Analisar fatores associados à baixa adesão ao tratamento farmacológico de doenças crônicas no Brasil. MÉTODOS Análise de dados oriundos da Pesquisa Nacional sobre Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM), inquérito domiciliar de base populacional, de delineamento transversal, baseado em amostra probabilística da população brasileira. Analisou-se a associação entre baixa adesão ao tratamento medicamentoso mensurado pelo Brief Medication Questionnaire e fatores demográficos, socioeconômicos, de saúde, assistência e prescrição. Foi utilizado modelo de regressão de Poisson para estimar as razões de prevalência brutas e ajustadas, os respectivos intervalos de 95% de confiança (IC95%) e p-valor (teste de Wald). RESULTADOS A prevalência de baixa adesão ao tratamento farmacológico de doenças crônicas foi de 30,8% (IC95% 28,8–33,0). As maiores prevalências de baixa adesão estiveram associadas a indivíduos: adultos jovens; que nunca estudaram; residentes na região Nordeste e Centro-Oeste do País; que tiveram que pagar parte do tratamento; com pior autopercepção da saúde; com três ou mais doenças; que referiam limitação causada por uma das doenças crônicas; e que faziam uso de cinco medicamentos ou mais. CONCLUSÕES A baixa adesão ao tratamento medicamentoso para doenças crônicas no Brasil é relevante e as diferenças regionais, demográficas e aquelas relacionadas à atenção à saúde do paciente e ao regime terapêutico requerem ações coordenadas entre profissionais de saúde, pesquisadores, gestores e formuladores de políticas para o seu enfrentamento.

Objetivo: descrever aspectos metodológicos do inquérito domiciliar da Pesquisa Nacional sobre Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM) quanto ao desenho e implementação da amostragem e da amostra efetivamente obtida, seus instrumentos e implementação do campo. Métodos: estudo transversal de base populacional com amostra probabilística em três estágios da população residente nos domicílios localizados na zona urbana do Brasil. O trabalho de campo foi desenvolvido entre setembro de 2013 e fevereiro de 2014. O instrumento de coleta de dados incluiu questões relativas a: informações do domicílio, dos moradores e dos entrevistados; doenças crônicas e medicamentos utilizados; uso de serviços de saúde; doenças e eventos agudos tratados com medicamentos; uso de contraceptivos; uso de serviços de farmácia; comportamentos que podem afetar o uso de medicamentos; bulas e embalagens; estilo de vida e planos de saúde. Resultados: foram realizadas 41.433 entrevistas em 20.404 domicílios e 576 conglomerados que correspondem a 586 setores censitários distribuídos nas cinco regiões do Brasil, segundo oito domínios definidos por grupos de idade e sexo. Conclusões: os resultados obtidos no inquérito podem ser utilizados como uma linha de base para futuros estudos que pretendam avaliar o impacto de ações governamentais nas áreas de acesso e de utilização de medicamentos. Para estudos locais que venham a usar um método compatível, a PNAUM pode servir como ponto de referência para avaliação de variações do espaço e da população. Com ampla avaliação dos aspectos relacionados aos medicamentos, a PNAUM é uma grande fonte de dados para as mais variadas análises, que podem ser conduzidas tanto no meio acadêmico como no âmbito governamental. Objective: to describe methodological aspects of the household survey National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines (PNAUM) related to sampling design and implementation, the actual obtained sample, instruments and fieldwork. Methods: a cross-sectional, population-based study with probability sampling in three stages of the population living in households located in Brazilian urban areas. Fieldwork was carried out between September 2013 and February 2014. The data collection instrument included questions related to: information about households, residents and respondents; chronic diseases and medicines used; use of health services; acute diseases and events treated with drugs; use of contraceptives; use of pharmacy services; behaviors that may affect drug use; package inserts and packaging; lifestyle and health insurance. Results: in total, 41,433 interviews were carried out in 20,404 households and 576 urban clusters corresponding to 586 census tracts distributed in the five Brazilian regions, according to eight domains defined by age and gender. Conclusions: the results of the survey may be used as a baseline for future studies aiming to assess the impact of government action on drug access and use. For local studies using a compatible method, PNAUM may serve as a reference point to evaluate variations in space and population. With a comprehensive evaluation of drug-related aspects, PNAUM is a major source of data for a variety of analyses to be carried out both at academic and government level.

Objetivo: analisar as variações da prevalência do uso crônico de medicamentos por idosos no Brasil segundo sua possível associação com as doenças crônicas mais prevalentes, fatores sociodemográficos e de saúde, e identificar fatores de risco para polifarmácia. Métodos: estudo com dados da Pesquisa Nacional de Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos, de caráter transversal e amostra probabilística populacional em municípios brasileiros urbanos. A variável independente foi o número de medicamentos de uso crônico por idosos, vinculados às oito doenças crônicas investigadas. As variáveis intervenientes foram sexo, faixa etária, situação conjugal, escolaridade, nível socioeconômico, região do País, índice de massa corporal, hábito de fumar, percepção da própria saúde, internação no último ano e posse de plano de saúde privado, além das doenças crônicas referidas. Uma análise multivariável identificou os fatores de risco para polifarmácia. Resultados: a prevalência de pelo menos um medicamento de uso crônico entre idosos foi de 93,0%. Do total de idosos, 18,0% utilizavam pelo menos cinco medicamentos (polifarmácia). A polifarmácia foi maior entre os mais idosos (20,0%), na região Sul (25,0%), nos que avaliaram a própria saúde como ruim (35,0%), nos obesos (26,0%), nos que referiram ter plano de saúde (23,0%) ou internação no último ano (31,0%) e entre os que referiram qualquer uma das doenças investigadas, particularmente diabetes (36,0%) e doenças cardíacas (43,0%). No modelo final de risco para polifarmácia permaneceram idade, região, percepção de saúde, posse de plano de saúde, internação no último ano e todas as doenças investigadas exceto acidente vascular cerebral. Conclusões: idosos com doenças específicas têm fatores de risco para polifarmácia modificáveis por ações que visem o uso racional de medicamentos. Com o envelhecimento populacional em curso e a política exitosa de acesso a medicamentos, a tendência é aumentar a utilização de medicamentos por idosos, que deve ser prioridade na agenda de planejamento do Sistema Único de Saúde. Objective: to analyze variations in the prevalence of chronic use of medicines by older adults in Brazil according to its possible association with the most prevalent chronic diseases and demographic and health factors, and to identify risk factors for polypharmacy. Methods: a study based on data from the National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines (PNAUM), a cross-sectional, population-based survey with probability sampling in Brazilian urban areas. The independent variable was the number of chronic-use medicines taken by older adults, linked to eight chronic diseases investigated. The intervening variables were gender, age group, marital status, level of education, socioeconomic status, Brazilian region, body mass index, smoking, self-perceived health, hospitalization in the previous year and having health insurance, besides the investigated chronic diseases. A multivariable analysis identified risk factors for polypharmacy. Results: prevalence of at least one chronic-use medicines among older adults was 93.0%. Of the total number of older adults, 18.0% used at least five medications (polypharmacy). Polypharmacy was higher among the oldest individuals (20.0%), in the South region (25.0%), in those with poor self-perceived health (35.0%), in obese individuals (26.0%), in those with reported health insurance (23.0%) or hospitalization in the previous year (31.0%), and among those who reported any of the investigated diseases, particularly diabetes (36.0%) and heart diseases (43.0%). The variables remaining in the final risk model for polypharmacy were age, region, perceived health, health insurance, hospitalization in the previous year and all investigated diseases except stroke. Conclusions: older adults with specific diseases have risk factors for polypharmacy modifiable by actions aimed at the rational use of medicines. With the current population aging and successful drug access policy, the trend is an increase in drug use by older adults, which should feature as a priority in the planning agenda of the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS).

OBJECTIVE To analyze the access to medicines to treat non-communicable diseases in Brazil according to socioeconomic, demographic, and health-related factors, from a multidimensional perspective. METHODS Analysis of data from the National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines (PNAUM), household survey, sampling plan by conglomerates with representativeness of the Brazilian population and large areas of the country, according to sex and age domains. Data collected in 2013–2014 with sample of adults (≥ 20 years) who reported having non-communicable diseases and medical indication for use of medicines (n = 12,725). We assessed the prevalence of access to medicines for self-reported non-communicable diseases, considering four dimensions: availability, geographic accessibility, acceptability, and affordability. We applied Pearson’s Chi-square test to assess the statistical significance of the differences between strata, considering the level of significance of 5%. We found prevalence of 94.3%, 5.2%, and 0.5% for full, partial, and null access, respectively. Higher prevalence was observed among seniors in the South compared to the Northeast; for those who reported having one non-communicable disease compared to those who reported having two or more; for those who needed one medicine compared to those who needed three or more; and for those who self-assessed their health as good or very good. Geographic accessibility was similar in the Unified Health System and in the private pharmacies (72.0%). Total availability of medicines was 45.2% in the Unified Health System, 67.4% in the Popular Pharmacy Program, and 88.5% in private pharmacies. Acceptability was 92.5% in the Unified Health System, 97.8% in the Popular Pharmacy Program, and 98.7% in private pharmacies. As to affordability, 2.6% of the individuals failed to take the medicines they should in the 30-day period prior to the interview due to financial difficulty. Prevalence of full access to medicines for non-communicable diseases in Brazil is high and presents significant differences for age group, region of the country, number of non-communicable diseases, and for medicines prescribed and self-assessment of health. The major barriers to access to medicines were identified in the dimensions analyzed. RESUMO OBJETIVO Analisar o acesso a medicamentos para tratar doenças crônicas não transmissíveis no Brasil segundo fatores socioeconômicos, demográficos e de saúde, sob perspectiva multidimensional. MÉTODOS Análise de dados da Pesquisa Nacional sobre Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM), inquérito domiciliar, plano amostral por conglomerados com representatividade da população brasileira e grandes regiões do País, segundo domínios de sexo e idade. Dados coletados em 2013-2014 com amostra constituída por adultos (≥ 20 anos) que referiram ter doenças crônicas não transmissíveis e indicação médica para usar medicamentos (n = 12.725). Avaliou-se a prevalência de acesso aos medicamentos para doenças crônicas não transmissíveis autorreferidas, considerando quatro dimensões: disponibilidade, acessibilidade geográfica, aceitabilidade e capacidade aquisitiva. Aplicou-se teste Qui-quadrado de Pearson para avaliar a significância estatística das diferenças entre os estratos, considerando o nível de significância de 5%. RESULTADOS Foram encontradas prevalências de 94,3%, 5,2% e 0,5% para acesso total, parcial e nulo, respectivamente. Maiores prevalências ocorreram entre os idosos, na região Sul comparada à região Nordeste; naqueles que referiram ter uma doença crônica não transmissível comparados aos que referiram ter duas ou mais; naqueles que precisavam de um medicamento comparados aos que precisavam de três ou mais; e naqueles que autoavaliaram sua saúde como boa ou muito boa. A acessibilidade geográfica foi semelhante no Sistema Único de Saúde e nas farmácias privadas (72,0%). A disponibilidade total de medicamentos foi de 45,2% no Sistema Único de Saúde, 67,4% no Programa Farmácia Popular e 88,5% nas farmácias privadas. A aceitabilidade foi de 92,5% no Sistema Único de Saúde, 97,8% no Programa Farmácia Popular e 98,7% nas farmácias privadas. Quanto à capacidade aquisitiva, 2,6% dos indivíduos não tomou os medicamentos que deveria nos 30 dias anteriores à entrevista devido à dificuldade financeira. CONCLUSÕES A prevalência do acesso total aos medicamentos para doenças crônicas não transmissíveis no Brasil é alta e apresenta diferenças significativas por faixa etária, região do País, número de doenças crônicas não transmissíveis e de medicamentos prescritos e autoavaliação da saúde. Foram identificadas as principais barreiras ao acesso a medicamentos nas dimensões analisadas.

OBJECTIVE To assess the prevalence of the use of medicines and other products for therapeutic purposes in the Brazilian pediatric population and test whether demographic, socioeconomic and health factors are associated with use. METHODS A cross-sectional population-based study (National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines – PNAUM), including 7,528 children aged 12 or younger, living in urban areas in Brazil. Medicine use to treat chronic or acute diseases was reported by the primary caregiver present at the household interview. Associations between independent variables and medicine use were investigated by Poisson regression. RESULTS The overall prevalence of medicine use was 30.7% (95%CI 28.3–33.1). The prevalence of medicine use for chronic diseases was 5.6% (95%CI 4.7–6.7) and for acute conditions, 27.1% (95%CI 24.8–29.4). The factors significantly associated with overall use were five years old or under, living in the Northeast region, having health insurance and using health services in the last 12 months (emergency visits and hospitalizations). The following were associated with drug use for chronic diseases: age ≥ 2 years, Southeast and South regions, and use of health services. For drug use in treating acute conditions, the following associated factors were identified: ≤ 5 years, North, Northeast or Midwest regions, health insurance, and one or more emergency visits. The most commonly used drugs among children under two years of age were paracetamol, ascorbic acid, and dipyrone; for children aged two years or over they were dipyrone, paracetamol, and amoxicillin. CONCLUSIONS The use of medicine by children is considerable, especially in treating acute medical conditions. Children using drugs for chronic diseases have a different demographic profile from those using drugs for acute conditions in relation to gender, age, and geographic region. RESUMO OBJETIVO Estimar a prevalência de uso de medicamentos e outros produtos com finalidade terapêutica na população pediátrica brasileira e testar se fatores demográficos, socioeconômicos e médicos estão associados ao uso. MÉTODOS Estudo transversal de base populacional (Pesquisa Nacional sobre Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos – PNAUM), incluindo 7.528 crianças com 12 anos ou menos de idade, residentes na zona urbana do território brasileiro. O uso de medicamentos para tratar doenças crônicas ou agudas foi referido pelo principal cuidador da criança presente na entrevista domiciliar. Associações entre as variáveis independentes e o uso de medicamentos foram investigadas por meio de regressão de Poisson. RESULTADOS A prevalência de uso global de medicamentos foi de 30,7% (IC95% 28,3–33,1). A prevalência de uso de medicamentos para doenças crônicas foi de 5,6% (IC95% 4,7–6,7) e para condições agudas, 27,1% (IC95% 24,8–29,4). Os fatores significativamente associados com o uso global foram ter no máximo cinco anos de idade, residir na região Nordeste, ter plano de saúde e utilizar serviços de saúde nos últimos 12 meses (consultas de emergência e internações). Associaram-se ao uso de medicamentos para doenças crônicas: idade ≥ 2 anos, regiões Sudeste e Sul e utilização de serviços de saúde. Para o uso de medicamentos em condições agudas, foram identificados os seguintes fatores associados: ≤ 5 anos, Norte, Nordeste ou Centro-Oeste, plano de saúde e uma ou mais consultas de emergência. Os medicamentos com maior prevalência de uso pelas crianças menores de dois anos foram paracetamol, ácido ascórbico e dipirona; nas crianças com 2 ou mais anos, foram dipirona, paracetamol e amoxicilina. CONCLUSÕES O uso de medicamentos na população infantil é substancial, principalmente no tratamento de condições médicas agudas. As crianças usuárias de medicamentos para doenças crônicas apresentam perfil demográfico diferente das usuárias de medicamentos para condições agudas, em relação ao sexo, à idade e à região geográfica.

OBJECTIVE To analyze the prevalence of medicine use by the Brazilian population and its distribution according to sociodemographic factors. METHODS Study using data from the Pesquisa Nacional de Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM – National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines), a nationwide household survey of a representative sample of the Brazilian urban population. The data were collected between September 2013 and February 2014. The overall use of medicines, defined as the use of any medicine, use of medicines for treating chronic medical conditions and for acute health conditions, was evaluated. The independent variables included gender, age group, socioeconomic position, and region of Brazil. Analyzes included prevalence calculations, 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) and Pearson Chi-square tests to evaluate the differences between groups, considering a 5% level of significance. RESULTS The prevalence of medicines use was 50.7% (95%CI 49.3–52.2), with 39.3% (95%CI 37.5–41.1) accounting for men and 61.0% (95%CI 59.3–62.6) for women. Medicines use was observed to increase with increasing age, except among children within the zero to four years age group. The lowest prevalence for medicines use was found among those with a low socioeconomic position and those who reside in the North region of Brazil. The prevalence of medicine use to treat chronic diseases was 24.3% (95%CI 23.3–25.4), whereas it was 33.7% (95%CI 32.1–35.4) for treating acute diseases. CONCLUSIONS We found extensive variability in the prevalence of medicines use across regions of Brazil. The poorest regions (North, Northeast, and Midwest) have a lower prevalence of medicines use to treat chronic diseases, indicating the need to minimize inequalities in access to medicines within the country. RESUMO OBJETIVO Analisar a prevalência do uso de medicamentos pela população brasileira e sua distribuição segundo aspectos sociodemográficos. MÉTODOS Estudo com dados da Pesquisa Nacional de Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM), pesquisa nacional de base populacional, realizada entre setembro de 2013 e fevereiro de 2014 em residências de municípios urbanos. Avaliou-se o uso de todos os medicamentos (global), uso de medicamentos para doenças crônicas e uso de medicamentos para doenças agudas. As variáveis independentes utilizadas foram sexo, idade, classificação econômica e região do País. Foram calculados prevalências e intervalos de confiança de 95% (IC95%) e aplicado teste Qui-quadrado de Pearson para avaliação das diferenças entre os grupos, considerando o nível de significância de 5%. RESULTADOS A prevalência global de uso de medicamentos foi de 50,7% (IC95% 49,3–52,2), sendo 39,3% (IC95% 37,5–41,1) no sexo masculino e 61,0% (IC95% 59,3–62,6) no sexo feminino. Observou-se aumento nas prevalências de uso com a idade (exceto de zero a quatro anos). As menores prevalências de uso ocorreram no grupo mais pobre e na região Norte do País. A prevalência de uso de medicamentos para doenças crônicas foi de 24,3% (IC95% 23,3–25,4) e para doenças agudas foi de 33,7% (IC95% 32,1–35,4). CONCLUSÕES Existe grande variabilidade nas prevalências globais de uso de medicamentos por regiões brasileiras. As regiões consideradas mais pobres (Norte, Nordeste e Centro-Oeste) apresentam menores prevalências de uso de medicamentos para doenças crônicas, o que indica a necessidade de minimizar as desigualdades no acesso aos medicamentos dentro do País.

OBJECTIVE To analyze the access to and use of medicines for high blood pressure among the Brazilian population according to social and demographic conditions. METHODS Analysis of data from Pesquisa Nacional Sobre Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos (PNAUM – National Survey on Access, Use and Promotion of Rational Use of Medicines), a nationwide cross-sectional, population-based study, with probability sampling, carried out between September 2013 and February 2014 in urban households in the five Brazilian regions. The study evaluated the access and use of medicines to treat people with high blood pressure. The independent variables were gender, age, socioeconomic status and Brazilian region. The study also described the most commonly used drugs and the percentage of people treated with one, two, three or more drugs. Point estimations and confidence intervals were calculated considering the sample weights and sample complex plan. RESULTS Prevalence of high blood pressure was 23.7% (95%CI 22.8–24.6). Regarding people with this condition, 93.8% (95%CI 92.8–94.8) had indication for drug therapy and, of those, 94.6% (95%CI 93.5–95.5) were using the medication at the time of interview. Full access to medicines was 97.9% (95%CI 97.3–98.4); partial access, 1.9% (95%CI 1.4–2.4); and no access, 0.2% (95%CI 0.1–0.4). The medication used to treat high blood pressure, 56.0% (95%CI 52.6–59.2) were obtained from SUS (Brazilian Unified Health System), 16.0% (95%CI 14.3–17.9) from Popular Pharmacy Program, 25.7% (95%CI 23.4–28.2) were paid for by the patients themselves and 2.3% (95%CI 1.8–2.9) were obtained from other locations. The five most commonly used drugs were, in descending order, hydrochlorothiazide, losartan, captopril, enalapril and atenolol. Of the total number of patients on treatment, 36.1% (95%CI 34.1–37.1) were using two medicines and 13.5% (95%CI 12.3–14.9) used three or more. CONCLUSIONS Access to medicines for the treatment of high blood pressure may be considered high and many of them are available free of charge. The most commonly used drugs are among those recommended as first-line treatment for high blood pressure control. The percentage of people using more than one drug seems to follow the behavior observed in other countries. RESUMO OBJETIVO Analisar o acesso e a utilização de medicamentos para a hipertensão na população brasileira segundo condições sociais e demográficas. Análise dos dados da Pesquisa Nacional Sobre Acesso, Utilização e Promoção do Uso Racional de Medicamentos, estudo nacional de delineamento transversal de base populacional, com amostra probabilística, realizado entre setembro de 2013 e fevereiro de 2014 em domicílios urbanos nas cinco regiões do Brasil. Avaliou-se o uso e acesso aos medicamentos para os cuidados com pessoas que apresentam hipertensão arterial. As variáveis independentes utilizadas foram sexo, idade, nível socioeconômico e região do País. Também foram descritos os fármacos mais utilizados e a proporção de pessoas tratadas com um, dois, três ou mais fármacos. As estimativas de ponto e os intervalos de confiança foram calculados considerando os pesos amostrais e o plano complexo da amostra. A prevalência de hipertensão arterial foi de 23,7% (IC95% 22,8–24,6). Das pessoas com a condição, 93,8% (IC95% 92,8–94,8) tinham indicação de tratamento com medicamentos e, destes, 94,6% (IC95% 93,5–95,5) estavam usando os medicamentos no momento da entrevista. O acesso total aos medicamentos foi de 97,9% (IC95% 97,3–98,4); o acesso parcial, de 1,9% (IC95% 1,4–2,4); e o acesso nulo, de 0,2% (IC95% 0,1–0,4). Dos medicamentos utilizados para tratar a hipertensão, 56,0% (IC95% 52,6–59,2) foram obtidos no SUS, 16,0% (IC95% 14,3–17,9), no Programa Farmácia Popular, 25,7% (IC95% 23,4–28,2) pago do próprio bolso e 2,3% (IC95% 1,8–2,9) em outros locais. Os cinco fármacos mais utilizados foram, em ordem descrente, hidroclorotiazida, losartana, captopril, enalapril e atenolol. Do total de tratados, 36,1% (IC95% 34,1–37,1) estavam usando dois fármacos e 13,5% (IC95% 12,3–14,9) utilizavam três ou mais fármacos. CONCLUSÕES : O acesso aos medicamentos para tratamento da hipertensão pode ser considerado elevado e grande parte desses medicamentos é obtida gratuitamente. Os fármacos mais utilizados estão entre os preconizados como de primeira linha para o controle de hipertensão arterial. A proporção de pessoas utilizando mais de um fármaco parece seguir o comportamento observado em outros países.

INTRODUCTION: The present study identified and described scientific production on primary and secondary prevention of oral cancer worldwide. This is an integrative review of the literature, focusing on the description of oral cancer prevention experiences.METHODS: The search was performed in the Virtual Health Library (VHL), using the descriptors: early diagnosis, oral neoplasms, primary prevention and secondary prevention. We found 225 articles and selected 22 after evaluation, divided into three themes.RESULTS: Four articles awareness-raising and population-tracking campaigns with the valorization of the role of the dental surgeon and the involvement of health teams. The non-invasive diagnostic methods, considered in fifteen articles, addressed the implementation of new strategies for the early detection of this pathology by different diagnostic methods. The reorganization of the health system (3 articles) encompassed the permanent education of oral health professionals, epidemiological surveillance and reorganization of health services with integration of health care levels. The great majority of the reviewed experiences showed positive results in the prevention of oral cancer. An exception was the active search for suspected cases in the population, since the cost benefit did not compensate the expenditure with human resources for this purpose. The non-invasive methods reported are useful for screening but do not substitute the biopsia for diagnosis. INTRODUÇÃO: O estudo identificou e descreveu a produção científica sobre prevenção primária e secundária do câncer oral no mundo. Foi uma revisão integrativa da literatura, com foco na descrição de experiências de prevenção do câncer oral.METODOLOGIA: A busca foi realizada na Biblioteca Virtual de Saúde (BVS), utilizando os descritores: diagnóstico precoce, neoplasias bucais, prevenção primária e prevenção secundária. Foram encontrados 225 artigos, selecionados 22 após a avaliação, divididos em três temáticas.RESULTADOS: Quatro artigos abordaram as campanhas de conscientização e rastreamento populacional com a valorização do papel do cirurgião-dentista e do envolvimento das equipes de saúde. Os métodos de diagnósticonão-invasivo, contemplados em quinze artigos, abordaram a implementação de novas estratégias de detecção precoce dessa patologia por diferentes métodos diagnósticos. A reorganização do sistema de saúde (3 artigos) considerou a educação permanente dos profissionais, vigilância epidemiológica e reorganização dos serviços de saúde com integração dos níveis de atenção à saúde. A grande maioria das experiências revisadas mostrou resultados positivos na prevenção do câncer oral. Foi exceção a busca ativa por casos suspeitos na população, pois o custo benefício não compensou o gasto com recursos humanos. Os métodos não invasivos relatados se mostram úteis para rastreio, mas não substituem a biopsia para diagnóstico.

The Farmácia Popular Program (FPP) launched a subsidy system in Brazil, but in coexistence with the ongoing regular governmental access to medicines (Unified Health System (SUS) dispensings) mechanisms, causing overlaps in terms of financing and target population. This characteristic is quite different from most countries with medicines cost-sharing schemes. This paper aims to analyse the FPP under a health systems perspective considering the different health system levels. We analysed the findings from the study ‘Impact of consecutive subsidies policies on access to and use of medicines in Brazil – ISAUM-Br’, designed with the objective of describing and evaluating the impact of the government medicines subsidy policies implemented between 2004 and 2011. Patient share of copayment increased with the implementation of the intervention, which decreased the reference price and decreased with SNP (Saúde Não Tem Preço; zero copayment for patients). There was an increased number of FPP dispensations over time, but SUS dispensings remained the most important source for medicines, especially for hypertension and diabetes. FPP allowed the establishment of a well-designed pharmaceutical information system in the country. Despite the improvement on control mechanism, fraud remained a problem. There were important effects on the pharmaceutical market and sales of generic medicines. FPP has proven to be a very important policy for promoting access to medicines for hypertension and diabetes in Brazil. Examining this policy with a health system perspective has allowed us to highlight many of its important consequences, including for the first time a broad and consistent information system on access to medicines in the country.

The objective of this paper is to explore and analyze the results of the Diagnosis of the Pharmaceutical Situation in Brazil (DiagAF-Br) from a regional perspective. The study made use of an exploratory approach of multiple cases based on the DiagAF-Br data collected in five Brazilian states. A descriptive analysis of selected indicators was performed in each of the Brazilian states in three pharmaceutical dimensions: access, quality, and rational use of medicines. The mainly results concerning the “percentage of completed prescriptions” varied from 1.1% in the State of Goiás to 98.6% in Espírito Santo; the “percentage of patients who know how to take their medicines” varied from 60.4% in Sergipe to 93.3% in Rio Grande do Sul. Educational level showed to be an important predictor of knowledge on how to use medicines, especially relevant when prescription is completed. The “average number of prescribed medicines”, approximately 2.1, did not show any difference between the visited sites. Different levels of management capacity and services organization were identified, suggesting the need for more adequate strategies to improve access, quality and mainly rational use of medicines in Brazil. O objetivo deste artigo é explorar e analisar os resultados do Diagnóstico da Situação Farmacêutica no Brasil (DiagAF-Br) em uma perspectiva regional. Foi utilizada abordagem exploratória de casos múltiplos, baseada nos dados do DiagAF-Br, que foram coletados em cinco estados brasileiros. Foram realizadas análises descritivas por estado para indicadores selecionados nas três dimensões: acesso, qualidade e uso racional de medicamentos. Entre os achados, destacam-se o percentual de prescrições completas, que variou de 1,1% no estado de Goiás a 98,6% no Espírito Santo; o percentual de pacientes que sabem como tomar os medicamentos, que variou de 60,4% no Sergipe a 93,3% no Rio Grande do Sul. A escolaridade apresentou-se como um importante preditor do conhecimento sobre como tomar os medicamentos, especialmente quando a prescrição está completa. O número médio de medicamentos por prescrição, cerca de 2,1, não mostrou diferenças entre os locais visitados. Foram identificados diferentes níveis de capacidade de gerenciamento e organização dos serviços farmacêuticos, o que sugere a necessidade de estratégias mais adequadas para ampliar o acesso, qualidade e principalmente o uso racional de medicamentos no Brasil.

The objective of this study is to evaluate the psychometric properties of a user satisfaction scale regarding the Brazilian National STD/AIDS Program, specifically related to dispensing AIDS medicines. The scale was developed and applied in a study covering 10 Brazilian States that evaluated the quality of medicine dispensing. The questionnaire was answered by 1,412 people living with HIV and undergoing antiretroviral therapy. Construct validation involved two stages of factor analysis. The item-total correlation matrix was analyzed, and tests for associations between the target variable, socio-demographic variables, and related constructs were performed. Reliability was studied by means of the sub-scales' internal consistency, estimated by Cronbach's alpha. Five relevant satisfaction dimensions were identified. A moderate level of internal consistency was found for these dimensions, suggesting they were adequate. The results of the association tests agreed with other studies reported in the literature. We conclude that the instrument is appropriate for application in similar populations with adequate psychometric characteristics and serves to measure users' assessments of the pharmaceutical services received and helps to orient improvements in such services. O objetivo do presente artigo é avaliar propriedades psicométricas de uma escala de satisfação de usuários do Programa Nacional de DST/AIDS com a dispensação de medicamentos. A escala foi desenvolvida e aplicada num estudo abrangendo dez estados brasileiros para avaliar a qualidade da dispensação de medicamentos. O questionário foi respondido por 1.412 pessoas vivendo com HIV em tratamento com anti-retrovirais. Para validação de constructo, foram realizadas duas etapas de análise fatorial. A matriz de correlação item-escala corrigida foi analisada; testes de associação entre a variável de interesse, variáveis sócio-demográficas e constructos relacionados foram realizados. A confiabilidade foi estudada por meio da consistência interna das subescalas, estimada pelo alpha de Cronbach. Cinco dimensões da satisfação foram identificadas. Encontrou-se consistência interna moderada para essas dimensões, sugerindo adequações. Houve concordância entre os resultados dos testes de associação realizados e os achados de outros estudos descritos na literatura. O instrumento mostrou-se apropriado para ser aplicado em populações semelhantes, servindo para aferir a avaliação dos usuários sobre os serviços recebidos e assim orientar melhorias nos serviços avaliados.

Background: Access to medicines is one of the major challenges in health policy. The high out-of-pocket expenditures on medicines in the Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) region represents important barrier to affordable access to care for NCDs. This paper aim to identify key barriers in access to medicines for household members with a diagnosed chronic condition in three Central America countries. Methods: This was a cross-sectional analytic study, based on data from three household surveys using a common methodology. We examined associated factors to: (1) seeking care for chronic illness from a trained clinician in the formal health system, and (2) obtaining all medicines sought for the chronic conditions reported. Results: A chronic condition was reported in 29.8 % (827) of 2761 households - 47.0, 30.7 and 11.8 % in Nicaragua, Honduras and Guatemala, respectively. The three main chronic conditions reported were hypertension, arthritis, and diabetes. Seeking care in the formal health system ranged from 73.4 % in Nicaragua to 83.1 % in Honduras, while full access to medicines varied from 71.6 % in Guatemala to 88.0 % in Honduras. The main associated factors of seeking care in the formal health system were geographic location, household head gender, Spanish literacy, patient age, perceived health status, perceived quality of public sector care, household economic level, and having health insurance. Seeking care in the formal health system was the main bivariate associated factor of obtaining full access to medicines (OR: 4.3 95 % CI 2.6 – 7.0). The odds of full access to medicines were significantly higher when the household head was older than 65 years, medicines were obtained for free, households had higher socioeconomic status, and health care was sought in the private sector. Conclusions: The nature of the health system plays an important role in access to medicines. Access is better when public facilities are available and function effectively, or when private sector care is affordable. Thus, understanding how people seek care in a given setting and strengthening key health system components will be important strategies to improve access to medicines, especially for populations at high risk of poor access.

Background Growing expenditures on prescription medicines represent a major challenge to many health systems. Cap and co-payment policies are intended as an incentive to deter unnecessary or marginal utilisation, and to reduce third-party payer expenditures by shifting parts of the financial burden from insurers to patients, thus increasing their financial responsibility for prescription medicines. Direct patient payment policies include caps (maximum numbers of prescriptions or medicines that are reimbursed), fixed co-payments (patients pay a fixed amount per prescription or medicine), co-insurance (patients pay a percentage of the price), ceilings (patients pay the full price or part of the cost up to a ceiling, after which medicines are free or are available at reduced cost) and tier co-payments (differential co-payments usually assigned to generic and brand medicines). This is the first update of the original review. Objectives To determine the effects of cap and co-payment (cost-sharing) policies on use of medicines, healthcare utilisation, health outcomes and costs (expenditures). Search methods For this update, we searched the following databases and websites: The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (including the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care (EPOC) Group Specialised Register, Cochrane Library; MEDLINE, Ovid; EMBASE, Ovid; IPSA, EBSCO; EconLit, ProQuest; Worldwide Political Science Abstracts, ProQuest; PAIS International, ProQuest; INRUD Bibliography; WHOLIS, WHO; LILACS), VHL; Global Health Library WHO; PubMed, NHL; SCOPUS; SciELO, BIREME; OpenGrey; JOLIS Library Network; OECD Library; World Bank e-Library; World Health Organization, WHO; World Bank Documents & Reports; International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP), WHO; ClinicalTrials.gov, NIH. We searched all databases during January and February 2013, apart from SciELO, which we searched in January 2012, and ICTRP and ClinicalTrials.gov, which we searched in March 2014. Selection criteria We defined policies in this review as laws, rules or financial or administrative orders made by governments, non-government organisations or private insurers. We included randomised controlled trials, non-randomised controlled trials, interrupted time series studies, repeated measures studies and controlled before-after studies of cap or co-payment policies for a large jurisdiction or system of care. To be included, a study had to include an objective measure of at least one of the following outcomes: medicine use, healthcare utilisation, health outcomes or costs (expenditures). Data collection and analysis Two review authors independently extracted data and assessed study limitations. We reanalysed time series data for studies with sufficient data, if appropriate analyses were not reported. Main results We included 32 full-text articles (17 new) reporting evaluations of 39 different interventions (one study - Newhouse 1993 - comprises five papers). We excluded from this update eight controlled before-after studies included in the previous version of this review, because they included only one site in their intervention or control groups. Five papers evaluated caps, and six evaluated a cap with co-insurance and a ceiling. Six evaluated fixed co-payment, two evaluated tiered fixed co-payment, 10 evaluated a ceiling with fixed co-payment and 10 evaluated a ceiling with co-insurance. Only one evaluation was a randomised trial. The certainty of the evidence was found to be generally low to very low. Increasing the amount of money that people pay for medicines may reduce insurers’ medicine expenditures and may reduce patients’ medicine use. This may include reductions in the use of life-sustaining medicines as well as medicines that are important in treating chronic conditions and medicines for asymptomatic conditions. These types of interventions may lead to small decreases in or uncertain effects on healthcare utilisation. We found no studies that reliably reported the effects of these types of interventions on health outcomes. Authors' conclusions The diversity of interventions and outcomes addressed across studies and differences in settings, populations and comparisons made it difficult to summarise results across studies. Cap and co-payment polices may reduce the use of medicines and reduce medicine expenditures for health insurers. However, they may also reduce the use of life-sustaining medicines or medicines that are important in treating chronic, including symptomatic, conditions and, consequently, could increase the use of healthcare services. Fixed co-payment with a ceiling and tiered fixed co-payment may be less likely to reduce the use of essential medicines or to increase the use of healthcare services.

O crescente número de mandados judiciais impetrados contra a Secretaria de Estado de Saúde do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, buscando acesso a medicamentos ensejou a condução do estudo. Um desenho seccional foi utilizado para descrever as ações impetradas de janeiro de 1991 a dezembro de 2002, analisando-as frente à definição de competências dentro do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS). Utilizou-se amostra estratificada de 389 ações, tendo como base o ano de início. Os resultados sugerem demora no julgamento das ações, sendo a maioria conduzida pela defensoria pública para usuários do SUS. Os medicamentos mais solicitados foram os de ação sobre os sistemas nervoso e cardiovascular, muitos de uso contínuo. Notou-se a oficialização de práticas prescritivas, com a inclusão de medicamentos freqüentemente solicitados nas listas de financiamento público, dificultando adesão ao uso racional de medicamentos. Medicamentos da competência de fornecimento dos municípios são solicitados ao Estado, que, por sua vez, falha no repasse. A aparente falta de esclarecimento dos autores e condutores das ações gera desgaste na relação executivo-judiciário e desvio dos recursos para ações coletivas de assistência farmacêutica. There are increasing numbers of legal suits concerning access to medicines brought against the Rio de Janeiro State Health Department. The situation indicated the need for a study to clarify the underlying issues. A sample of 389 court suits from January 1991 to December 2001 (stratified by year) was used. A cross-sectional design was used to describe and analyze the legal suits in relation to the responsibilities defined under the Unified National Health System (SUS). Results suggest major delays in court decisions. Most suits are filed by the Public Defender's Office for users of the National Health System. The most frequent cases involve medicines for the cardiovascular and nervous systems, many of which involve continuous use. Prescribing practices are institutionalized through the inclusion of the most frequently prescribed drugs in public financing lists, which makes rational drug use difficult to achieve. Municipalities are not fulfilling their responsibility to supply medicines to users, and the State is thus encumbered with these responsibilities. However, the State does not adequately supply medicines to the municipalities. The apparent lack of awareness among both lawyers and clients generates stress between the Executive and Judiciary branches and limits the resources for collective pharmaceutical services.

Objectives The Brazilian constitution guarantees the right to health, including access to medicines. In May 2004, Brazil’s government announced the “Farmácia Popular” Program (FPP) as a new mechanism to improve the Brazilian population’s access to medicines. Under FPP, a selected list of medicines is subsidized by the government and provided in public and private pharmacies. The aim of this study is to describe the historical stages of the FPP and to identify associated changes in the geographical accessibility of medicines through the FPP over time. Methods It was performed documentary review and an ecological study assessing program coverage in terms of number of facilities and a FPP Pharmacy Facilities Density (PFD) index at national and regional levels from 2004 to 2013, using the FPP database. We used geographic information system mapping to depict a pharmaceutical facilities density (PFD) index at the municipality level on thematic maps. Results A growth of the PFD index coincident with the phases of the FPP was noticed. In the public sector, the program started in 2004; by 2006, there was a sharp increase in the numbers of participating pharmacies, stabilizing in 2009. In the private sector, the program started in 2006; by 2009 the PFD ratio had increased substantially and it continued to grow through 2011. There was an increase in FPP coverage in most regions between 2006, when the private pharmacy component started, and 2013, but participating pharmacies remain unequally distributed across geographical regions. Specifically, the wealthy areas in the South and Southeast have higher coverage, with lower coverage mostly in the North and Northeast, relatively poorer areas with greater need for access to medicines, health care, and other basic services such as potable water and sanitization. Conclusions There has been a substantial increase in the number of pharmacies participating in the FPP over time. This has led to greater program coverage and has potentially improved access to FPP medicines in the country. Nevertheless, disparities in pharmacy coverage remain among the regions. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40545-015-0030-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Introduction: Distance learning methods have been widely used because of their advantages to continuing professional development processes. The Primary Health Care (PHC) is a strategy which has been implemented in order to improve the efficiency of health systems. Due to the need for access to medicines and technologies regardless of the strengthening of health systems, a new approach that better integrates both pharmaceutical services and health systems has been implemented. Case description: This is a case study which consists of describing the process of restructuring, developing and implementing the second version of the Virtual Course on Primary Health Care-based Pharmaceutical Services for managers (CVSERVFAPS-12). The main objective is to strengthen the capacity of managers in pharmaceutical services, based on PHC at different levels of the health system, in order to support the restructuring and empowering of these services and, consequently, the health systems in the American region. Discussion and evaluation: Many evaluation tools were applied to identify the achievement/improvement of planned competencies. The intervention proposals were collectively built and intended to be more than an academic exercise, looking forward to being implemented as a strategic intervention to promote changes in the pharmaceutical services of the American region. The main strengths identified for the second version of the course were related to the quality of the didactic material and content. Additionally, the tutors’ support was commented upon as a positive aspect. The main challenges faced in this rebuilding process related to the due dates of the activities and lectures as well as the time to capture and assimilate the content. Conclusions: The CVSERVFAPS-Pilot was reformulated and CVSERVFAPS-12 is consistent with the issues raised in the pilot course’s evaluation in 2011, which were successfully implemented. The use of the distance learning strategy, through a virtual environment, for the application of the Virtual Course on PHC- based pharmaceutical services for managers, is appropriate and confirmed its role in public policy promotion through effective retention and distribution of health workers.

Medicamentos são um componente essencial da terapêutica, no entanto, informações sobre seu consumo em população trabalhadora são escassas. Para estimar a prevalência, caracterizar o perfil daqueles consumidos e avaliar os fatores associados ao seu uso em trabalhadores foi realizado estudo seccional de dados da linha de base da Coorte "PROSEC" (n=417). A prevalência de consumo de pelo menos um medicamento foi de 72,4%, destacando-se fármacos com ação no sistema nervoso (25,4%), especialmente analgésicos (17,8%). Fatores associados ao uso de qualquer número de medicamentos (p

Brazil was the first developing country to provide people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWA) with comprehensive, universal, free access to antiretroviral medicines (ARV). Pharmaceutical services are considered a strategic action that has the goal of providing access to rational use of quality medicines while also promoting user satisfaction. User satisfaction is a complex concept, and evaluation models for pharmaceutical services for PLWA were not found in the literature. Therefore, an evaluation approach to help assess this issue had to be developed. This article seeks to describe a theoretical evaluation model of user satisfaction with the dispensing of ARV, developed as part of an Evaluability Assessment (EA). It presents a brief review of the EA and user satisfaction and describes the development of models created during the EA. The lessons learned in the process are presented as a conclusion. O Brasil foi o primeiro país em desenvolvimento a fornecer medicamentos antiretrovirais (ARV) de forma integral, universal e gratuita às pessoas vivendo com HIV/Aids (PVHA). A Assistência Farmacêutica é considerada uma ação estratégica e busca prover acesso a medicamentos de qualidade, com uso racional, promovendo a satisfação dos usuários. Satisfação do usuá-rio é um conceito complexo e modelos para avaliarem serviços farmacêuticos para PVHA não são encontrados na literatura. Este artigo objetiva descrever o desenvolvimento de três modelos criados em um Estudo de Avaliabilidade (EA). É apresentada uma breve revisão dos conceitos de EA e de Satisfação do Usuário. As lições apreendidas no processo são apresentadas como conclusão.

Foi realizado estudo para identificar perfil de preços e disponibilidade de medicamentos segundo tipo de provedor, nas cinco regiões do país, para uma lista de medicamentos utilizados no tratamento de doenças prevalentes na população. Utilizou-se a metodologia de avaliação de preços proposta pela Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS) pela Ação Internacional para a Saúde (AIS), adaptada para o cenário brasileiro. A análise evidenciou que no setor público há mais medicamentos similares do que genéricos em todas as regiões. Para a maioria dos medicamentos (71,4%) a disponibilidade de genéricos foi menor que 10%. No setor privado, a média do número de diferentes de versões genéricas encontradas nos pontos de venda foi muito inferior ao número de versões existentes no mercado. A análise mostrou correlação positiva entre o número de genéricos comercializados, ou encontrados no ponto de venda, e variação de preços em relação ao preço máximo ao consumidor. Estima-se que medicamentos genéricos estejam competindo em preço entre si e com similares, mas não com medicamentos de referência.

Este estudo tem como objetivo avaliar o acesso à assistência farmacêutica, prestada aos portadores do HIV/AIDS, em serviços da rede pública de saúde no Município do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, focalizando aspectos relacionados às dimensões: disponibilidade, oportunidade e adequação dos recursos. A estratégia utilizada foi a análise de implantação, que permite avaliar os processos envolvidos na produção dos efeitos esperados para uma intervenção, e sua relação com o contexto organizacional. Foi realizado um estudo de caso em onze serviços públicos de saúde, selecionados segundo: representação das diferentes áreas programáticas, nível de complexidade e atenção a mais de cem portadores de HIV/AIDS. O grau de implantação do programa (89%) foi considerado aceitável. Contudo, foram identificadas deficiências, que podem ser contornadas com treinamento do pessoal envolvido no processo, e com a adoção de um programa da qualidade. São também discutidas algumas limitações dos indicadores utilizados. Concluindo, ressalta-se a importância desse tipo de avaliação, como metodologia que permite o monitoramento para a melhoria contínua da qualidade da assistência farmacêutica. This study evaluates access by people living with HIV/AIDS to pharmaceutical care provided by public health care facilities in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, focusing on availability, accessibility, and accommodation. The evaluation was conducted using the implementation analysis approach, assessing the process of producing intervention outcomes, considering its relationship to the organizational context. A case study was performed in 11 public health facilities selected according to: different health program areas; diverse levels of complexity; and more than 100 HIV/AIDS patients registered. The degree of implementation (89%) was considered acceptable. Problems with human resources skills and lack of a quality program were identified. Some limitations of the indicators are discussed. Finally, the study highlights the importance of this kind of evaluation as a methodology for continuous monitoring of quality in pharmaceutical care.

Background: This study aims to rank policy concerns and policy-related research issues in order to identify policy and research gaps on access to medicines (ATM) in low- and middle-income countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), as perceived by policy makers, researchers, NGO and international organization representatives, as part of a global prioritization exercise. Methods: Data collection, conducted between January and May 2011, involved face-to-face interviews in El Salvador, Colombia, Dominican Republic, and Suriname, and an e-mail survey with key-stakeholders. Respondents were asked to choose the five most relevant criteria for research prioritization and to score policy/research items according to the degree to which they represented current policies, desired policies, current research topics, and/or desired research topics. Mean scores and summary rankings were obtained. Linear regressions were performed to contrast rankings concerning current and desired policies (policy gaps), and current and desired research (research gaps). Results: Relevance, feasibility, and research utilization were the top ranked criteria for prioritizing research. Technical capacity, research and development for new drugs, and responsiveness, were the main policy gaps. Quality assurance, staff technical capacity, price regulation, out-of-pocket payments, and cost containment policies, were the main research gaps. There was high level of coherence between current and desired policies: coefficients of determination (R 2 ) varied from 0.46 (Health system structure; r = 0.68, P

No contexto das mudanças ocorridas no sistema de fornecimento de medicamentos em nível nacional no Brasil, com destaque para a desativação da Central de Medicamentos (CEME), e da crescente descentralização das ações de saúde no âmbito do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS), três estados brasileiros - Paraná, São Paulo e Minas Gerais - elaboraram, dentro da política de assistência farmacêutica, programas envolvendo a distribuição de medicamentos essenciais para a atenção primária de saúde. O Ministério da Saúde está atualmente implementando um programa nacional de aquisição e distribuição de um elenco de 32 medicamentos para a atenção primária ("Programa Farmácia Básica") que deverá ter suas atividades posteriormente descentralizadas. A discussão aqui proposta tem por objetivo fornecer subsídios para a organização e/ou estruturação da assistência farmacêutica estadual no que concerne à atenção primária de saúde, por meio da análise destes três programas pioneiros, envolvendo as atividades de seleção, aquisição, estocagem, distribuição e uso de medicamentos. In the context of recent changes in the Brazilian drug supply system at the national level, mainly the deactivation of CEME (a government agency under the Ministry of Health that dealt with drug supply policy) and the increasing decentralization of activities under the Unified National Health System (SUS), three Brazilian States - Paraná, São Paulo, and Minas Gerais - have established programs for the distribution of essential drugs for primary health care. A nationwide program for the procurement and supply of 32 drugs for primary health care (the so-called "Basic Pharmacy Program") is currently being implemented by the Ministry of Health, to be decentralized subsequently. This article discusses the establishment of State-level drug policies for primary health care through the analysis of the three pioneering programs encompassing drug selection, procurement, storage, distribution, and use.

No presente trabalho, os autores abordam, dentro do âmbito da administração de materiais, a aquisição e o aprovisionamento de medicamentos no setor público de saúde, discutindo as duas principais vertentes da questão: qualidade e custo. São relatados os fatores que devem ser considerados pelo comprador quando se avalia o quesito qualidade de medicamentos, em especial a questão dos genéricos, a bioequivalência e a estabilidade das formulações. Por outro lado, o item custo é examinado, assim como as implicações que uma demanda diferenciada e voltada para as inovações tecnológicas tem sobre ele. Por fim, discutem-se alternativas, já empregadas em algumas instituições, apresentando-se sugestões cuja finalidade implica na possibilidade de compra de produtos de qualidade aliada à contenção de custos.

Objective: To assess scientific publication and map research gaps on access to medicines (ATM) in Latin American and the Caribbean low-income and middleincome countries (LMIC). Design: Scoping review. Two independent reviewers assessed studies for inclusion and extracted data from each study. Information sources: Search strategies were developed and the following databases were searched: MEDLINE, ISI, SCOPUS and Lilacs, from 2000 to 2010. Eligibility criteria: Research articles and reviews published in English, Spanish and Portuguese were included. Studies including only high-income countries were excluded, as well as those carried out in very limited settings and discussion papers. Results: The 77 articles retained were categorised through consensus among the research team according to the level of the health system addressed, ATM domain and research issues covered. Publications on ATM have increased over time during the study period (r 0.93, p=0.00; R 2 0.85). The top five countries covered were Brazil (68.8%), Mexico (15.6%), Colombia (11.7%), Argentina (10.4%) and Peru (10.4%). ‘Health services delivery’ and ‘patients, household and communities’ were the health system levels most frequently covered. The ATM domains ‘leadership and governance’, ‘sustainable financing, affordability and price of medicines’, ‘medicines selection and use’ and ‘availability of medicines’ were the top four explored. There are research gaps in important areas such as ‘human resources for health’, ‘global policies and human rights’, ‘production of medicines’ and ‘traditional medicine’. Conclusions: The upward trend on scientific publication reflects a growing research capacity in the region, which is concentrated on research teams in selected countries. The gaps on research capacity could be overcome through research collaboration among countries. It is important to strengthen these collaborations, assuring that interests and needs from the LMIC are addressed and local capacity building is promoted.

This study investigated structural and organizational characteristics of the Pharmaceutical Services based on Primary Health Care (PHCPS) from the viewpoints of users and pharmacists. A mixed method design was applied, combining one-to-one semi-structured interviews with four pharmacists in charge of five public dispensing facilities and 69 users, with a secondary database analysis. Data were collected from February to August 2014 in Divinópolis, a municipality in Minas Gerais State. PHCPS were similar in terms of general activities performed and staff profile and background. While users were concerned about medicines’ availability and improvements related to the PHCPS’ conveniences and personnel, pharmacists pointed out problems regarding infrastructure to storage. Despite most users had low information on how to use their medicines, no pharmacists declared to participate in medicines dispensing activities. There was a low match between users and pharmacists viewpoints and advantages for concentrate medicines dispensing in a smaller number of facilities were not clear. Resumo Este estudo investigou características estruturais e organizacionais de serviços farmacêuticos na Atenção Primária à Saúde, a partir do ponto de vista de farmacêuticos e de usuários. Foi utilizado delineamento de métodos mistos, combinando entrevistas semiestruturadas com 69 usuários e 4 farmacêuticos responsáveis pelos 5 serviços que dispensam medicamentos para a população, com análise de dados provenientes de banco de dados municipal. Coletaram-se os dados de fevereiro a agosto de 2014, em Divinópolis, município de Minas Gerais. Os serviços foram similares em termos das atividades realizadas e do perfil profissional dos trabalhadores. Enquanto os usuários preocupavam-se com a disponibilidade de medicamentos e desejavam a melhoria da estrutura dos serviços e dos recursos humanos, os farmacêuticos apontaram problemas relativos ao armazenamento dos medicamentos. Apesar da maioria dos usuários relatarem poucas informações sobre a utilização de seus medicamentos, nenhum farmacêutico declarou participar de atividades de dispensação. Houve pouca concordância entre os pontos de vistas de usuários e de farmacêuticos. A vantagem de se concentrar a dispensação de medicamentos em um número reduzido de unidades dispensadoras não foi observada na prática.