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The most amount of withdrawn freshwater in the world is used for agriculture activities to extract essential products for human survival. Smart Farming can manage and optimize the water amount given to crop fields in various crop development stages, weather, and soil condition. Sensors installed in several monitoring spots can gather soil moisture of the crop field to indicate the level of water retained in it. However, due to connectivity or sensor failure problems, the smart farming system can not receive the soil moisture data given by the irrigation management. Deep learning techniques can predict soil moisture data using other irrigation management types as data from weather, crop, and irrigation systems. The Fog Computing paradigm also tackles the connectivity problem in the farms since it extends the traditional cloud computing architecture to the edge of the network, providing edge nodes with computational resources to process and analyze sensor requests. In this context, we propose different deep neural network architectures to build prediction models of soil moisture. We also handle the problem of missing data for the dataset features. For this purpose, we use KNN data imputation, which requires filling the values of unknown (or missing) features with values that ensure a desired degree of reliability. Finally, we also embedded the prediction models on a small single-board computer, often used as a fog node, to evaluate the performance of the prediction models according to CPU and RAM usage. This evaluation showed a maximum consumption increase of 10% CPU and 1% RAM. Therefore, the models are viable to fog architectures in the Internet of Things context. Our results indicate that the predictive models achieve a satisfactory efficiency to improve irrigation water saving.

Irrigation facilities is one of the key factors in farming, especially for food crop farming, including rice. A smallscale irrigation system has an area of less than 500 hectares, and it is the backbone of family food security which in turn will lead to national food security. Damage irrigation system networks will threaten food production increase. In the future, irrigation infrastructure must be better managed so that agricultural sector can realize agricultural diversification, conserve wider irrigation system and maintain local wisdom and social capital in irrigation management. The objective of the paper is to analyze performance, problems and solutions of small irrigation systems in Indonesia, including small irrigation concepts and understanding, small irrigation performance and development, small irrigation development policies, factors affecting smallscale irrigation development, investments, and prospects. The paper also compares various performances, problems and solutions of small irrigation systems in other countries. Small scale irrigation performance is often better than large-scale irrigation, in the sense of water availability throughout the year and equitable water distribution for all service areas

The availability of irrigation water for agriculture is one of the determinant factors that affect production, so it is important and strategic to support the success of agricultural business, especially in an effort to increase food production and productivity to realize food security. The Indonesian government has already spent considerable funds on the agricultural irrigation sector, but paddy crop production has not increased, so innovative measures are needed in handling it. The use of seeds supports irrigation modernization, and quality fertilizer is the right step to increase paddy production. The irrigation modernization plan will also be directed to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the utilization of irrigation management funds through the development and management of participatory irrigation. A literature study is needed to explore the research about the potential, problem, and solution that support the direction of irrigation management system renewal policy in paddy productivity improvement scheme. The result of the analysis based on a previous study on IKMI and IKSI showed that the low score of the indicator (IKMI < 60 percent and IKSI < 55 percent) is on Human Resources, which include human resources institution/manager and human resources community water users (P3A). The use of superior seeds and balanced organic fertilizer will affect paddy productivity by 18.18 percent. The establishment of UPIM will be beneficial in fostering the management of modern irrigation systems and the use of quality seeds and fertilizers so that paddy productivity will be achieved.

Nowadays in Bangladesh, farm mechanization is one of the major cause of change in agricultural sector. Due to labor shortage and high wage rate of labor, farmers are compelled to accept farm mechanization. The purpose of the study was to assess the modern agricultural technologies used in Panchagarh district and develop statistical information. The study period was from August 2019 to October 2019. For this study, three places such as Panchagarh Sadar, Boda and Debiganj were selected. Present status was analyzed based on irrigation management system, tillage practices, insect control practices, harvesting and post-harvesting operation, drying and storage facilities for rice production. A structured questionnaire was used to collect the information’s of machinery used in selected places. The study revealed that irrigation, land preparation and crop protection was almost mechanized, but mechanization is still lacking in harvesting operation. There were no transplanter, seed drill and fertilizer applicator found in the study areas used by farmers. Crops were still dried through sun drying storage was done by the traditional storage technologies. It is a fact that mechanization is in progress in these areas but need more extension work with modern machineries. The government should develop proper planning by investigating present status of mechanization and improve the present condition by increasing machinery utilization. View Article DOI: 10.47856/ijaast.2021.v08i9.006

Globally, increasing water scarcity and higher production costs are the challenges in the cultivation of conventional transplanted rice (TPR). Under such conditions, dry direct-seeded rice (DDSR) with water-saving techniques like alternate wetting and drying (AWD) or aerobic rice system (AR) is a promising solution. Continuous flooded (CF) and water-saving irrigation techniques (AWD and AR) for different aromatic rice varieties have been rarely compared under conventional TPR and conservation DDSR production systems in monetary terms. This study was conducted to compare the economic benefits and cost of production for two aromatic rice varieties (Basmati 515 and Chenab Basmati) under three irrigation techniques (CF, AWD and AR) and two production systems (TPR and DDSR). The DDSR reduced the cost of production (16%) and increased the net field benefits (36%) due to reduced total water inputs and land management charges as compared to TPR. Overall, AWD irrigation was more economical due to higher gross income (8%), net field benefits (27%), highest benefit–cost ratio (36%) and better marginal rate of return as compared to CF. Cultivating Chenab Basmati was more profitable than Basmati 515 under DDSR, while Basmati 515 performed well under TPR as compared to Chenab Basmati and had higher net field benefits (7%) and net returns (16%). In conclusion, cultivation of early maturing variety under water-saving production system (DDSR) and water-saving irrigation management (AWD) has the potential to maximize economic returns and marginal rate of return, while reducing the cost of production and also a pragmatic solution for sustainable rice production.

The role of women has always been a multi-dimensional and significant as women have performed well in case of agricultural activities, domestic activities, marketing activities as far as labour requirement is considered. The decision-making process is an important segment of every household because the functioning of family resource management depends on the efficiency of decision-making progress. So, women involvement in decision-making process has been of great importance because sampling method to make a sample of 120 respondents. Hence finally the sampling consisted of 120 respondents. More number of farm women were found to have level of decision making process: the highest decision making behavior in sowing followed by winnowing process, seed processing, irrigation management , collection of harvested crop, storage, field preparation, selection of seed/variety, marketing, Manures and fertilizer application, weeding, harvesting, seed treatment, Pest and disease management and soil testing. View Article DOI: 10.47856/ijaast.2021.v08i8.013

BACKGROUND Water is critical to the production of crops, especially when faced with seasonal drought or freshwater scarcity. We compared the effect of negative pressure irrigation (NPI) on water use efficiency (WUE), nutrient uptake, yield and quality of Brassica chinensis L. using a greenhouse plot experiment. Three different water supply pressures (-5, -10 and -15 kPa), and a conventional irrigation (CK) treatment, were arranged in a randomized design with three replications. RESULTS Our results suggest that plant height, leaf area, number of leaves and ratio of root to shoot were significantly correlated with water supply pressure. Specifically, our results show that B. chinensis L. yield was increased 50% with NPI versus CK. Water supply pressure had a significant effect on N and P nutrient uptake and no significant effect on K. The average concentration of vitamin C was greatest with -5 kPa treatment and consecutively declined. According to our results, NPI can save up to 36.8% of water used and improve WUE by 61.3% during growth of B. chinensis L. Our results suggest that the optimum irrigation management strategy is -5 kPa treatment. CONCLUSION NPI versus CK can provide more stable irrigation water and retain soil moisture during plant growth, resulting in an increased WUE and yield with suitable water supply pressure. While our results suggest that NPI can enhance B. chinensis L. yield and perhaps also quality, future research should explore the mechanism of NPI in relation to yield and water use efficiency. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

This paper proposes a new approach to predicting dry season periods by using annual cumulative rainfall for the past 35 years to determine dry season parameters (onset, end, and duration) in Agam District, West Sumatra, Indonesia. After determining the dry season parameters, the trend of each parameter was determined by using the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator. Finally, the parameters for future dry seasons were predicted by using the autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model. The results showed that (1) on average, the dry season period in Agam District starts on April 28 and ends on September 17 with a duration of 142 days, (2) dry season periods would be delayed in the future, as indicated by positive trends in the past 35 years for both the onset and end with probabilities of 78.83 and 84.42%, respectively, (3) the ARIMA model successfully predicted the dry season with good performance for the onset (NSE = 0.747) and very good performance for the end (NSE = 0.769), and (4) the dry season period in the next 5 years would start between April 29 and May 5 and end between September 19 and October 4. This study suggested that relevant stakeholders should reassess the schedule for water use and distribution of agricultural water, postpone transplanting to the first week of July in future dry seasons, and prepare additional irrigation water to prevent water deficit.

The scarcity of water resources throughout the world demands its optimum utilization in various sectors. Smart Sensing-enabled irrigation management systems are the ideal solutions to ensure the optimum utilization of water resources in the agriculture sector. This paper presents a wireless sensor network-enabled Decision Support System (DSS) for developing a need-based irrigation schedule for the orange orchard. For efficient monitoring of various in-field parameters, our proposed approach uses the latest smart sensing technology such as soil moisture, leaf-wetness, temperature and humidity. The proposed smart sensing-enabled test-bed was deployed in the orange orchard of our institute for approximately one year and successfully adjusted its irrigation schedule according to the needs and demands of the plants. Moreover, a modified Longest Common SubSequence (LCSS) mechanism is integrated with the proposed DSS for distinguishing multi-valued noise from the abrupt changing scenarios. To resolve the concurrent communication problem of two or more wasp-mote sensor boards with a common receiver, an enhanced RTS/CTS handshake mechanism is presented. Our proposed DSS compares the most recently refined data with pre-defined threshold values for efficient water management in the orchard. Irrigation activity is scheduled if water deficit criterion is met and the farmer is informed accordingly. Both the experimental and simulation results show that the proposed scheme performs better in comparison to the existing schemes.

Water scarcity poses a global threat to smallholder farmers and crops. Along with population growth, agricultural development, increased urbanization, and climate change, water scarcity is expected to worsen. Farmers’ adaptation is one way to cope with the threat of water scarcity. Understanding farmers’ adaptation behavior and the process of implementing adaptation is a prerequisite for designing water scarcity risk management strategies. This study, using a qualitative approach, investigated the methods of water scarcity adaptation by farmers in Khuzestan Province in southwestern Iran and the farmers’ adaptation process using a paradigmatic model. Different adaptation methods were divided into categories including crop management, farm management, irrigation management, economic management, social networking, and knowledge management. The results provide a relatively comprehensive model that consists of six basic parts: understanding the causes and effects of water scarcity, the contextual and intervention factors, adaptation methods, and consequences. This paper presents a model that reflects the complex and repetitive nature of farmers’ decisions and can be used by researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders to better understand and describe informed decision-making and the development of policies and interventions.

USO DA ÁGUA E DE TÉCNICAS DE MANEJO DE IRRIGAÇÃO NO CAFEEIRO CONILON NATÁLIA GRAMELISCH SILVESTRE1; ELVIS PANTALEÃO FERREIRA2; GUSTAVO HADDAD SOUZA VIEIRA3; JÉSSICA BROSEGHINI LOSS4 E GABRIEL PETERLE5 1Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Espírito Santo – IFES campus Santa Teresa, Rod. ES 080, km 93, 29.660-000, São João de Petrópolis, Santa Teresa, Espírito Santo, Brasil, e-mail:natygramelisch@gmail.com 2IFES campus Santa Teresa, Rod. ES 080, km 93, 29.660-000, São João de Petrópolis, Santa Teresa, Espírito Santo, Brasil, e-mail: epf150@hotmail.com 3IFES campus Santa Teresa, Rod. ES 080, km 93, 29.660-000, São João de Petrópolis, Santa Teresa, Espírito Santo, Brasil, e-mail: ghsvieira@gmail.com 4UENF, Av. Alberto Lamego, 2000 - Parque Califórnia, 28.013-602, Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, e-mail: jessicaloss54@gmail.com 5UFV, Av. Peter Henry Rolfs, s/n - Campus Universitário, 36.570-900, Viçosa, Minas Gerias, Brasil, e-mail: gabrielpeterle@gmail.com 1 RESUMO Buscou-se verificar a percepção dos cafeicultores do município de São Roque do Canaã quanto ao uso racional da água e das técnicas de manejo de irrigação empregadas nas lavouras cafeeiras. Também, foi verificado se a assistência técnica exerce influência na sensibilização e no conhecimento dos produtores quanto ao uso adequado da água para irrigação no município, para tanto foram aplicados questionários aos produtores. A pesquisa contou com uma amostra de 100 cafeicultores que fazem uso de diferentes tipos de sistemas de irrigação, que foram divididos em dois grupos caracterizados pela localização da propriedade rural em relação à margem do Rio Santa Maria do Rio Doce (SMRD), agrupados também entre aqueles que recebem assistência técnica particular ou pública (CAT) e os que não recebem (SAT). Constatou-se que, em todas as propriedades SAT visitadas (avaliadas), a determinação da duração dos eventos de irrigação é feita arbitrariamente pelo produtor (ou proprietário), sem a utilização de critérios técnicos, contra 92% das propriedades CAT. Quanto à outorga, na margem esquerda do Rio SMRD, 64% dos produtores CAT e 76% dos produtores SAT são outorgados, já na margem direita, 100% dos produtores CAT e 92% dos produtores SAT entrevistados possuem outorga de uso da água. Palavras-chave: irrigação, Coffea canephora, agricultura - assistência técnica, outorga, bacias hidrográficas. SILVESTRE, N. G.; FERREIRA, E. P.; VIEIRA, G. H. S.; LOSS, J. B.; PETERLE, G. USE OF WATER AND IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES ON COFFEE CONILON CROP 2 ABSTRACT We sought to verify the perception of coffee growers in the municipality of São Roque do Canaã regarding the rational use of water and irrigation management techniques applied on coffee plantations. It was also verified whether technical assistance influences the awareness and knowledge of the producers regarding the proper use of water for irrigation in the municipality, for this purpose, questionnaires were applied to the producers. The survey included a sample of 100 coffee growers who use different types of irrigation systems, divided into two groups characterized by the location of the rural property in relation to Santa Maria of Doce River (SMDR) river bank, grouped among those who receive private or public technical assistance (CAT) and those that do not receive (SAT). It was found that, in all SAT properties visited (evaluated), the determination of the duration of irrigation events is made arbitrarily by the producer (or owner), without the use of technical criteria, against 92% of the CAT properties. Regarding the water use permit, on the left river bank of the SMDR River, 64% of the CAT producers and 76% of the SAT producers have water use permit, while on the right river bank, 100% of the CAT producers and 92% of the interviewed SAT producers have water use permit. Keywords: irrigation, Coffea canephora, agriculture - technical assistance, water use permit, watersheds.

In the era of climate change, irrigation is playing a pivotal role in stabilising food production, enabling dry season farming, and improving farmers’ livelihoods, particularly in Asia and African countries. Recently, Ghana has taken steps to respond to the concept of stakeholder collaboration to improve the irrigated agricultural sub-sector as well as enhance farmers’ resilience to changing climate. However, there is limited attention to recent diverging experiences on collaborative practices from irrigation stakeholders. Using the Weija Irrigation Scheme as a case study, this study explores stakeholders’ perceptions of collaborative practices in irrigation management by identifying gaps and providing suggestions to enhance stakeholder collaboration. We conducted focus group discussions with farmers and in-depth interviews with key informants, such as heads of farmer groups, government departments, agencies, and agricultural extension agents. Secondary data from conventional literature, organisational websites, and quarterly reports were also used. Following the integrated collaboration governance theory, effective collaboration was measured based on the tripartite prism of “principled engagement, shared motivation, and capacity for joint action”. Analysis of the data reveals that despite the central government’s resolve for collaborative irrigation planning and management, effective collaboration remains limited. Based on principle engagement, this study points out that weak communication and sharing of information remain in the planning and management of the Weija Irrigation Scheme. In terms of shared motivation, there were minimal commitment to joint project planning, exclusion of some key stakeholders from meetings, and negative attitudes towards collaboration. Finally, the capacity for joint action (e.g. lack of fund, time, staff, and equipment) is limited. The policy implications and suggestions for further research are presented in the study.

ABSORÇÃO DE MACRONUTRIENTES E SÓDIO PELO TOMATEIRO SUBMETIDO A IRRIGAÇÃO COM E SEM DÉFICIT HÍDRICO, UTILIZANDO DIFERENTES CONCENTRAÇÕES DE ÁGUA RESIDUÁRIA FRANCIELLY GUIEIRO GOMES DE SOUSA2; RENATA DA SILVA CUBA DE CARVALHO3; MARA RÚBIA MENDES DE MELO4 E HÉLIO GRASSI FILHO5 1 Trabalho originado da dissertação de mestrado do primeiro autor intitulada: “Irrigação com água residuária em diferentes diluições e disponibilidade para a cultura do tomate cereja” 2 Doutoranda, Departamento de Engenharia Rural, Faculdade de Ciências Agronômicas – FCA – Unesp, Câmpus Botucatu, Avenida Universitária, 3780, CEP 18610-034, Altos do Paraíso, Botucatu-SP, Brasil, fran.engagricola@gmail.com 3 Doutora, Departamento de Engenharia Rural, Faculdade de Ciências Agronômicas – FCA – Unesp, Câmpus Botucatu, Avenida Universitária, 3780, CEP 18610-034, Altos do Paraíso, Botucatu-SP, Brasil, renatacuba@hotmail.com 4 Doutoranda, Departamento de Produção e Melhoramento Vegetal. Faculdade de Ciências Agronômicas (FCA/UNESP – Campus de Botucatu). Rua José Barbosa de Barros, 1780. CEP: 18.610-307, Botucatu-SP - Brasil. mara_mendesmelo@hotmail.com 5 Professor Titular do Departamento de Solos e Recursos Ambientais da Faculdade de Ciências Agronômicas - FCA/UNESP, Campus Botucatu (SP), heliograssi@fca.unesp.br 1 RESUMO Perante a grande demanda de água no planeta para o desenvolvimento de atividades econômicas e consumo doméstico, estudos relacionados ao aproveitamento da água residuária no meio agrícola podem ajudar a minimizar problemas de escassez desse recurso. Sendo assim o objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar a absorção de macronutrientes e sódio pela cultura do tomate irrigado com e sem déficit hídrico, utilizando água residuária. O experimento foi conduzido em ambiente protegido, o sistema de irrigação foi por gotejamento, e o manejo da irrigação foi baseado na evaporação do tanque classe ‘A’ instalado dentro do ambiente. Foram determinadas duas lâminas: 70 e 100% da evapotranspiração da cultura, nas quais foram utilizadas água de abastecimento e de esgoto doméstico tratado em quatro diluições: 25, 50, 75 e 100%. Assim, foi possível avaliar a absorção de macronutrientes e sódio, na área foliar e frutos, através de análise química. Os resultados obtidos, indicaram que as plantas irrigadas com déficit hídrico absorveram maior quantidade dos nutrientes N, K, Mg e S. No entanto quanto maior a porcentagem de água residuária na irrigação, maior foi a absorção de sódio pelas plantas e frutos. Palavras chave: nutrição, reúso doméstico, manejo da irrigação, Lycopersicon esculentum L. SOUSA, F. G. G.; CARVALHO, R. S. C.; MELO, M. R. M.; GRASSI FILHO, H. ABSORPTION OF MACRONUTRIENTS AND SODIUM BY TOMATOES SUBMITTED TO NORMAL AND WATER DEFICIENT IRRIGATION SCHEMES USING VARIOUS CONCENTRATIONS OF WASTEWATER 2 ABSTRACT The high worldwide demand for water use in economic development and domestic consumption has led to studies on the agricultural use of wastewater that can help minimize the problem of scarcity of this resource. This study aimed to evaluate the absorption of macronutrients and sodium from cultivated tomatoes, irrigated with wastewater, under normal and water deficient irrigation schemes. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse, we used a drip irrigation system that was managed on the basis of evaporation from a Class A tank placed in the experimental area. Two irrigation depths were determined: 70 and 100% of the crop evapotranspiration, supply water, and four dilutions of domestic wastewater were used: 25, 50, 75, and 100%. We evaluated the absorption of macronutrients and sodium via chemical analysis of the leaves and fruits. Results showed that plants irrigated using the water deficit irrigation scheme absorbed more N, K, Mg, and S nutrients. However, the higher the percentage of wastewater used for irrigation, the higher the absorption of sodium by plants and fruits. Keywords: nutrition, domestic reuse, irrigation management, Lycopersicon esculentum L.

The national inventories of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which are periodically prepared by countries that signed the Climate Change Convention, compute emissions from anthropogenic sources among them agricultural activities. The protocols established within the scope of the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) make it possible to estimate these emissions. These protocols use standard emission factors that vary according to the characteristics of the monitored activities and only scientific research, published in journals of recognized quality, can establish other local factors. Brazilian researchers carry out experiments to measure GHG emissions from agricultural activities, aiming to calculate specific parameters for the national climatic and management conditions. These field experiments are complex, costly, with a limited number of repetitions and, eventually, high natural variability. Often, these limitations result in the inability of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) to identify differences between treatments. The objective of this work is to present the non-parametric Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) test as an alternative to compare the effect of flooded irrigation management on methane (CH4) emission throughout the rice crop cycle. We present a case study in which ANOVA produced non-significant results for the adjustment of the model while the KS identified the emission curves as significantly different. The KS test could be adapted, via the SAS NPAR1WAY routine, to compare events with responses over time, such as methane emissions in flooded rice, resulting in test values and graphs that are easy to understand and interpret. Made available in DSpace on 2021-04-05T19:34:09Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Luiz-Application-Kolmogorov-Smirnov-2021.pdf: 544325 bytes, checksum: 966101569cc1e1156793c244d9a21092 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2021

Many governments and international agencies have promoted irrigation management transfer (IMT) in order to reduce operations and maintenance costs and satisfy farmers' willingness to improve their irrigation service by self-management. However, IMT has produced both satisfactory and unsatisfactory results. This paper presents a participatory research-based assessment of IMT in a case study in Northwest Argentina. The study combined conventional irrigation performance assessment and a survey of farmers' perception of the water delivery service and willingness to participate in water users associations. The assessment compared two subsystems in the Río Dulce Irrigation District with different levels of management transfer. Water service in the subsystem where management had been transferred allowed flexible delivery schedules that facilitated a diversified cropping pattern, greater irrigation intensity, and resulted in more water use. Farmers in the transferred subsystem were more aware of the problems of the irrigation service than farmers in the non-transferred subsystem. The perception of problems in the non-transferred subsystem increased with the level of the farmer's professionalism and technical knowledge. The transmission of requests and complaints from farmers to managers was more transparent in the transferred subsystem than in the non-transferred one., The first author acknowledges the grant funded by INTA to develop his PhD at the Instituto de Agricultura Sostenible (CSIC) in Spain, APAZ-IV, and UER.

Uneven and low precipitation areas of Nepal are continuously suffering from drought and received low productivity because of unavailability of suitable drought tolerant maize genotype. An attempt has been made first time in Nepal by constructing an automated rainout shelter with soil moisture based automated drip irrigation system at National Maize Research Program in 2018-2019 to conduct an experiment on drought tolerant maize genotype. The rainout shelters automatically covers the cropping area as soon as the rain sensor received a single drop of precipitation and also if the light intensity decreased to value set in the control panel. Likewise, the soil water level in different treatments were maintained on the basis of the treatment controlled with automatic drip irrigation system set to irrigate at threshold value set in the microcontroller. The complete system had found very useful in determining accurate amount of water required to cultivate drought tolerant maize genotype. We have tested drought tolerant variety RampurSo3Fo8 under 10 level of irrigation and it was determined that 495.2 mm of water is maximum level of water to produce highest yield of 3.32 t/ha whereas 445.6 mm to 247.6 mm of water could can be manage to produce competitive yield without any reduction. An experiment under such kind of infrastructure provide useful information on irrigation management practices required for drought variety in the natural environment. The research output also guides farmers and agriculturist in making Nepalese agricultural more sustainable, mechanized and productive.

This study estimates breakeven price distributions for irrigated and non-irrigated corn, cotton, and soybean production in Tennessee under conventional tillage and no-till for three field sizes and two sources of energy for irrigation. The distributions were compared using forecasted prices of corn, cotton, and soybean realized under different climate scenarios. The price simulation focuses on the short-, medium-, and long-term impacts of drought-induced yield reduction on commodity market prices. Electric pump irrigation systems in the southeastern United States have lower energy costs and, thus, a lower breakeven price than diesel-fueled irrigation pumps. A corn producer could obtain a lower breakeven price per kg by irrigating fields of 51–81 hectares. Cotton and soybean producers managing fields of 81 hectares or less could realize lower breakeven prices by not irrigating. Under extended drought conditions during which the market price for corn, soybeans, and cotton are higher, irrigated corn is more likely to be profitable compared to irrigated cotton or soybeans. These results could inform the development of irrigation management plans for row crop producers in the southeastern United States.

Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) program has always focused on food security needs and applications. IRS-1C was the fourth satellite on the IRS platform after many successful applications from IRS-1A, 1B, and P2 satellites. The LISS-I and LISS-II camera onboard IRS-1A/1B/P2 platform provided useful data for various natural resource management applications of country, including inventories of major crops (Wheat, Mustard, Rice, etc.), at the district level. Looking at specific requirements of assessment of multiple crops and associated small field sizes (

HighlightsASABE/IA 6th National Irrigation Symposium includes 80 papers, with 36 introduced here in this Special Collection.Papers include current irrigation research about ET, management, turf systems, technology, humid region, water supply.Irrigation in the U.S. is growing more rapidly in humid regions, and pressurized irrigation continues to grow in usage.There has been much progress in irrigation science in the last decade, and the vision of the future looks bright.Abstract. This article introduces the ASABE Special Collection associated with the 6th Decennial National Irrigation Symposium: Beyond 2020, Vision of the Future. This U.S. symposium, jointly sponsored by ASABE and the Irrigation Association in December 2021, was postponed from 2020 due to the pandemic and consists of approximately 80 presentations, of which 36 were accepted as journal articles for this Special Collection. Irrigated land area appears to be growing slightly in the U.S. but is shifting geographically somewhat toward humid regions. Pressurized irrigation continues to grow, and gravity-fed irrigation continues to decline. Competition for stressed water resources among diverse water users remains great, and smaller numbers of irrigation scientists are available to meet the informational needs. Improved ability to acquire, assess, and use water and crop information helps to meet these challenges. This article discusses irrigation research progress in evapotranspiration (ET), irrigation management, turf systems, sensors and technologies, irrigation strategies in the humid region, and water supply. Challenges and opportunities continue to exist for irrigation in the U.S., but progress in the last decade has been steady, and a good vision for the future of irrigation beyond 2020 is anticipated. Keywords: Evapotranspiration, Irrigation, Irrigation management, Irrigation scheduling, Irrigation systems, Turf and landscape irrigation.

Agriculture is the backbone of all developing countries. The livelihood of a huge majority of the Indian population is completely dependent on agriculture. However lack of basic requirement lead to poor development in this sector. The major factor required for the development of this sector is to improve water supply level. The lack of proper monsoon has resulted in poor agricultural yield. Based on the natural calamities we can predict the requirement of water for particular crop at different stages of growth and also enhance the yield. In this paper, we have chosen Thottiyam taluk as example located in the state of Tamilnadu, India. For that location we have collected the basic attributes required for good irrigation management for the months of December and January. Artificial Intelligence techniques are applied to predict the water level requirement and their performances can be compared.

Northern Niayes is an area where agriculture is the main activity. Water used for irrigation in this area comes exclusively from groundwater. Farmers do not have access to electricity, thus fuel is the main source of energy used, which is very expensive. The objective of this study was to assess the techno-economic feasibility of solar irrigation pumps. Regarding technical feasibility, pump sizing was carried out on the basis of irrigation management, irrigation techniques, and water distribution. Also, the economic feasibility was studied on the basis of the Net Present Value, Benefit-Cost Ratio, Internal Rate of Return and Payback Period. Results showed for cultivated area ranging from 0.05 ha to 1.91 ha, pumps’ flow rate does not vary greatly from one irrigation technique to another. It varies between 2.5 m3/h and 31 m3/h. However, pressure and power are higher when using drip and sprinkler irrigation techniques, ranging from 27.8 m to 39.9 m for drip and 40.1 m to 58.5 m for sprinkler irrigation. The power varies between 0.05 kW and 1.6 kW for manual, between 0.05 kW and 2.5 kW for drip and between 0.1 kW and 4.75 kW for sprinkler irrigation. The investment cost is variable (669 euros to 21,400 euros), depending on the cultivated area, pump brands and characteristics, and irrigation techniques. Results show that the investment cost ranges from 669 euros (438,500 CFA) to 4090 euros (2,683,000 CFA) when using the manual irrigation technique, from 1281 euros to 20,600 euros when using the drip irrigation technique and from 819 euros to 21,403 euros when using sprinkler irrigation technique for individual pumps. The investment cost is higher when using reservoirs. In this case, the investment cost varied between €722 and €6062 for manual irrigation, €1532 and €25,882 for drip irrigation and €900 and €28,000 for sprinkling. However, the total investment cost at the entire lowland scale is higher when farmers use the pumps individually and lower when farmers use the pumps in groups when using manual and drip irrigation techniques. NPV varies between 15,993€ (0.75 ha) and 103,139€ (1.41 ha) and between 13,064€ and 86,139€ when using sprinkler irrigation techniques with PVC pipes and when using the drip irrigation technique, respectively. BCR is estimated to average 2.2, 2, and 2 respectively when using manual, drip, and sprinkler irrigation techniques. In addition, PBP is reached more rapidly when using the manual irrigation technique.

Water scarcity is relative and variable concept that can occur at any level of supply and demand. It is also a social construct, which is linked to the intervention in the water cycle and changes over time as a result of natural hydrological change. It is more severe when water acts as a backbone in economic policies, planning and management methods. Water scarcity can be expected to increase with most forms of economic development, but, if properly identified, many of its causes can be expected and avoided or mitigated. However, the limited irrigation management is considered a very important issue in the agricultural scope. Therefore, in this study, the relationship between water, crop production, photosynthesis, crop transpiration, crop growth, crop yields and water use efficiency have been discussed under limited irrigation conditions. However, the crops have some ability to adapt and resist against limited irrigation. Hence, under high temperate conditions, this is a shortage of water and photosynthesis is decreased with a pore (stoma) restraining. At the same time, the evapotranspiration reaches to the utmost value and the water use efficiency rises because of optimal monitoring of leaf pore (stoma). Therefore, the modality which is the reduction of the risks and improving industrial control in incomplete irrigation are the chief constraints of providing irrigation water in the future, which leads to increased crop production and ultimately providing a provision of food security.

The article presents the issues of water saving, declining freshwater resources in the world, and the problems of drought in the context of proper and effective irrigation of various types of crops. The use of microprocessor irrigation management systems has a significant impact on the quality of the yield and the rational use of water. An example of the irrigation system construction scheme is presented. The system uses strain gauge soil moisture sensors, which can be used to determine the relative water demand of plants, depending on the growing substrate. Additional system security in the form of rainfall and wind speed sensors provide the necessary information for the correct operation of the irrigation system. Then, two universal algorithms were proposed to automate the irrigation process of plant crops due to the way water is supplied to the plants. The first algorithm is designed for systems using drip lines - they are widely used in various types of crops where there is a need to precisely supply water to the plant, such systems are destined especially for crops grown undercover or for nursery crops. The second algorithm for sprinkler-based systems is mainly used in field crops and in mushroom farms. The presented algorithms can be used to design and implement intelligent irrigation systems, and after adding an additional module – for plant fertilization.

Development of an irrigation area were implemented to increase the productivity of agricultural products, especially rice and palawija (secondary crops commodities). The productivity of rice and palawija was influenced by irrigation performance, both by infrastructure and irrigation management. The operation management of irrigation network in Ciliman Irrigation Area is still not optimal due to the absence of an operations to regulate the amount of water that enters each tertiary intake causing excessive water intake upstream while shortage in the downstream. This is also exacerbated by the condition of water availability in the dry season which is lower compared to the need of irrigation water. Therefore, this research is conducted to optimize the cropping pattern and water allocation in Ciliman Irrigation Area by considering the reliability of irrigation water delivery. Research was conducted through water balance simulation according to several scenarios based on group division, changes in the planting schedules, and changes in planting area. Then, optimization of the cropping pattern was done by maximizing the reliability of irrigation water delivery. The recommended cropping pattern is 100% rice planted in planting season I, 100% rice planted in planting season II, and 27.47% palawija (soybean) planted in planting season III. Water delivery should be arranged into 3 groups with the 1 st planting schedule starts in 1 st period of November, 2 nd planting season starts in 1 st period of March, and 3 rd planting season starts in 2 nd period of July. With this scenario, there was an increase in the cropping index from the existing conditon of 199.7 (83% reliability) to 213.7 (100% reliability).

This study assessed the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of sugar beet production under different irrigation and fertilizing strategies. This manuscript is an evaluation of the on production inputs used in a research carried previous on sugar beet and its conversion into GHG emissions equivalent. This paper evaluated the potential for environmental mitigation, including the reduction of total GHG emissions from agricultural inputs in sugar beet production by managing irrigation and nitrogen fertilizing. In this context, the nine treatments based on three different irrigations (full irrigation, conventional deficit irrigation, partial root drying irrigation) and three nitrogen fertilizing strategies (full nitrogen, partial deficit nitrogen, moderate deficit nitrogen) were assessed. The results of evaluation showed that DI-N 1 strategy can reduce irrigation water and nitrogen use up to 25% compared to control treatment (FI-N). In addition, this strategy saved 25% of electricity consumption use for irrigation. The analyse of pollution in this study led to very important findings: more environment-friendly irrigation and fertilization practices by using less water and nitrogen have a considerable potential for environmental mitigation in sugar beet production

Soil salinity is the major factor that limits agricultural productivity in arid and semi-arid regions. The use of improved farm management practices in such areas is becoming a highly concerning issue to sustain agricultural productivity. This study, therefore, was conducted to evaluate the effect of on-farm water management practices and irrigation water sources on soil quality. The experiment was conducted on 16 farmer's fields in the area for two consecutive years. Soil and water sampling were done at the beginning and end of each growing season. Both samples were analyzed for selected parameters following standard laboratory procedures. A general linear model of two ways analysis of variance was used to evaluate the variations among treatments. Results indicated that about 64.3% of studied soil properties are showed significant variation at P

The areas of northern Thailand rely heavily on water management by Muang Fai irrigation systems. Outstanding features of these typical systems include public participation and acceptance of regulations established by Muang Fai irrigation management; however, the knowledge and application of modern technologies should be promoted in these systems in collaboration with traditional water management. In this study, remote sensing was applied to analyse plant phenology to estimate the planting dates and farming sizes through Sentinel-2 imagery. CROPWAT 8.0 was also used to analyse the crop water requirements in different periods to enable the water management committee to determine the water quantity needed in each period throughout the area. The greatest water amounts were needed by plants during the dry season in March and April each year. In addition, the researcher team adopted strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis to establish guidelines for the potential enhancement of Muang Fai irrigation systems suited to the current social contexts and environment.

Recently, the wireless sensor networks have rapidly emerged into agriculture and greenhouse because of owing many advantages than the traditional methods. However, some subjects such as cost and power are being brought up as a controversial issue. This study presents a developed wireless sensor network based on a proposed algorithm to improve tomato crop in a greenhouse. The developed sensor nodes, which own low-power consumption and also low-cost, monitor parameters like temperature, humidity, CO, C O 2 and light intensity. The users define the minimum and maximum setpoints for the sensors to make an appropriate condition in the greenhouse. Also, the developed system was equipped with irrigation management that works based on time and date that maintain optimum water in the soil. The obtained results reveal that the amount of the tomato crops increases 30% than traditional methods after benefiting the developed system as well as the greenhouse experiences a decrease in consuming methane gas, water, and electricity as 30, 24 and 10% separately, in comparison to the traditional methods.

Pigeonpeais one of the major crops and grown in an area of 67,547 ha in drought prone Ananthapuramu district. However due usage of the long duration traditional Pigeonpea varieties and continuous failure of the NE monsoon coincides with the crop critical stages (Flower bud initiation, flowering, pod development in the district are the major drawbacks for the declined productivity. An attempt was done at Agricultural Research Station, Ananthapuramu on different options available for the irrigation to the pigeonpea crop during kharif,2016. Experimental results revealed that growth parameters like plant height and stem girth were higher with continuous irrigations whereas higher yield and yield attributing parameters were registered with flooding (irrigation at all five critical stages irrigations). Flood irrigation at 5 critical stages registered the highest additional net income of Rs 1,10,300 ha-1 which was closely followed by Drip irrigation at flowering and pod development stages with an additional net income of Rs 94,100, However higher BC ratio (7.63) was obtained with Drip irrigation at flowering and pod development stages. Drip irrigation at Flowering and Pod development registered higher water use efficiency (3.68 kg ha-1mm-1) on mean basis.

One of the key issues in collective action is whether stakeholders are able to realize commons governance through a trust-based mode or control-based mode. This paper, examines whether trust and control affect the commons governance for small-scale irrigation facilities, and the moderating effects of group size on the relationship between trust and control and cooperative performance. The data were collected from 504 households who participated in the collective action for small-scale irrigation facilities in Shaanxi, Gansu Province, and Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region of Northwest China. The analysis was performed by Structural Equation modeling and hierarchical regression. The findings show that trust and control are contrasting forces that influence the participation degree and the cooperative performance, although their relationship is not of a simple supplementary character but could be moderated by the group size. Both trust-based and control-based modes of irrigation management are effective in small groups, whereas only a control-based mode of management has an effect in big groups. The theoretical contribution of this paper clarifies the mechanisms through which the contrasting forces of group size are exerted on trust and control, directly and indirectly influences the participation degree and the cooperative performance in commons governance.

The reference evapotranspiration (ET0) estimates is important for water resources and irrigation management. The Penman-Monteith equation is known for its accuracy but requires a high number of climatic parameters that are not always available. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the performance of machine learning techniques (cubist regression, artificial neural network with Bayesian regularization, support vector machine with linear kernel function) and stepwise multiple linear regression method to estimate daily ET0 with limited weather data in a Brazilian agricultural frontier (MATOPIBA). Climatic data from 2000 to 2016 obtained from 23 weather stations were used. Five data scenarios were evaluated: (i) all variables, (ii) radiation and temperature, (iii) temperature and relative humidity, (iv) wind speed and temperature, and (v) temperature. The results showed that the machine learning methods are robust in estimating ET0, even in the absence of some variables. Among the methods evaluated using only temperature data, the cubist regression showed better performance. When estimating water demand for soybean and maize crops using only temperature, the cubist regression and calibrated Hargreaves-Samani equation showed the smallest errors.

This work considers the design analysis of a low-cost microcontroller-based irrigation controller capable of managing irrigation for a small area of land based on real-time values of soil moisture and temperature. The method employed is to continuously monitor the soil moisture level to decide whether irrigation is needed, and how much water is needed in the soil. In particular, the microcontroller based circuit device performs the action of irrigation management. Specifically, it does this by continuously monitoring the moisture content of the soil, and comparing the values with two set reference values; the upper-limit, and lower-limit moisture content values, and then induces the corresponding action required. When the soil moisture content goes below the lower-limit value set by the user, the system observes this and begins irrigation action. Results obtained show that this design is cost-effective, and guarantees efficient water supply and effective labor management. Also, irrigation test results show that the duration of spray largely depends on the soil texture, grass identity and moisture content. In particular, sprinkler irrigation method in loamy soil took longer than in sandy soil, while clay soil irrigation took the longest time. Keywords: Automatic-Irrigation Controller, Irrigation, Microcontroller, Water-supply

Soil textural variability diminishes the effectiveness of conventional irrigation management. Variable rate irrigation (VRI) can address soil variability; however, users need guidance to prepare prescriptions for optimal water application. A study was conducted at Portageville, MO, USA, in 2016 and 2017 with the objective to compare yield and irrigation water use efficiency among three water-management treatments for cotton: rainfed, irrigated based on the USDA-ARS Irrigation Scheduling Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (ISSCADA) system, and irrigated based on a water balance method. Sand content in the top 533 mm soil layer was estimated from apparent electrical conductivity (ECa). Yield values measured near an ECaobservation were averaged to create a data set containing sand content and associated yield. Although the trend was for the rainfed treatment to have the lowest yield in both years, the yield differences among all treatments were not significant when sand content was not considered. A strong effect of sand content on cotton yield was observed in both seasons, although the slopes differed among the water management treatments in 2016. The ISSCADA system tended to have a higher irrigation water use efficiency in both seasons, but the difference was not significant in 2016 when total irrigation applications were low. The study is continuing at Portageville and other locations and the ISSCADA system is constantly being improved to better meet the needs of agricultural producers.

Agriculture is one of the segments that most uses water and developments have been made to save irrigation water. Deficit irrigation is a technique that can contribute to production and water saving in agriculture. This study aimed to evaluate the viability of deficit irrigation in tomato production irrigated by subsurface drip in a greenhouse and estimate water saving. The experiment was conducted at the CCA/UFSCar, in Araras, São Paulo, Brazil, with grape tomato cultivation. It consisted of three treatments, 100 % water depth and deficit irrigation (75 and 50 % of water depth), with a randomized block design. Irrigation management was performed using mean soil moisture data collected through TDR probes installed in each treatment. Tomato plants were cultivated for 137 days and conducted vertically with one stem and six bunches. Fruit size, number and mass of fruits per plant, fruit pH and soluble solids were attributes measured and analyzed weekly. The deficit irrigation of 50 % treatment presented lower values in all attributes evaluated and 90.6 % of water saving. The 75 % treatment showed lower value only for pH and fruit diameter and 70.4 % of water saving. Deficit irrigation of 75 % was viable for tomato cultivation in greenhouse and for water saving in crop cycle.

The study aimed to evaluate the performance of the Food and Agriculture Organization "AquaCrop" model (version 6.1) in simulating the productivity and biomass of wheat crops in old lands under the surface irrigation system. Field data for the period from 2013- 2016 were used to calibrate the model's through matching productivity and biomass observed using root mean square error (RMSE) 0.05 and 0.2 ton/ha and Nash coefficient values of 0.9 and 0.8, resp. A calibrated model was simulated the grain yield to generate an irrigation schedule with the aim of developing an appropriate irrigation management strategy for wheat. Results showed that the highest value of wheat water production was achieved through the application of five irrigations when applying fixed net application (80 mm) with a total of 400 mm for the season and different interval between irrigation ranges between 30-39 days depended on depilation of the 80% of Readily Available Water (RAW) threshold while taking into rainy mind. This sequence was superior to the normal used irrigation sequence conducted from 2013 to 2016 (fixed net application 80,96mm and fixed interval 27,33 days on six and five irrigations application resp. with a total of 480 mm per season). 16.7% less water use with increasing water productivity is one of the important things at the present time. The results will help determine an irrigation management option appropriate to the prevailing weather conditions and farm resources, and thus this model can be used as a decision support tool in increasing water productivity.

Farmland size is a key factor in debates over agricultural land use, food security, agrochemical pollution, and the future of smallholder systems. This paper examines relationships between farmland...

Field experiments were conducted at Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India, during summer 2019 to find out energy efficient rice establishment methods under irrigation management strategy. Field experiment comprised of four establishment methods in main plot viz., conventional transplanting (M1), machine transplanting under puddled soil (M2), machine transplanting under unpuddled soil (M3) and sowing with seed drill (M4). The sub plot consisted of 4 irrigation management practices viz., farmers’ irrigation practice (continuous submergence of 5 cm throughout the crop period) (I1), Irrigation after formation of hairline crack (I2), irrigation when water level reaches 5 cm below soil surface (I3) and irrigation when water level reaches 10 cm below soil surface (I4). Medium duration fine grain rice variety TKM 13 was used for the study. Result of the study revealed that among the rice establishment methods higher energy output, net energy production, energy ratio and profitability was observed under machine transplanting under unpuddled soil. Among the irrigation management practices, irrigation after formation of hairline crack (I2) observed higher energy output and net energy production; whereas, energy ratio, energy productivity, energy intensity and B:C ratio were higher with irrigation when water level reaches 5 cm below soil surface (I3). This study concluded that machine transplanting under unpuddled soil combined with irrigation when water level reaches 5 cm below soil surface can be recommended as the suitable technology for the farmers of tank irrigated command area to get higher output energy with minimum use of input energy and also to obtain higher profit.

Over four years, a research-for-development project was implemented at the 25 de Setembro irrigation scheme in Mozambique. The project introduced agricultural innovation platforms to overcome barriers to production such as input and output supply chains and poorly maintained irrigation canals. Soil moisture and nutrient monitoring tools were provided so that farmers could improve their irrigation and fertilizer management. The farmers increased their crop production through the use of the tools and better irrigation infrastructure, and increased their income and overall well-being through better links to markets and new information sources facilitated by the agricultural innovation platforms Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The concept of a green economy has gained currency in recent years as a paradigm for promoting economic growth and increased well-being while protecting the environment and contributing to poverty alleviation. There is no common definition of green economy, but the term clearly emphasizes the economic dimension of sustainability. Not only do the environmental (stewardship) and economic (growth) dimensions coexist in the green economy, but they are also complementary and mutually reinforcing strategies to achieve development. Water scarcity, pollution, and other water related environmental and ecological problems have been increasing rapidly in many areas of the world. Water demand management or making better use of the water we have as opposed to augmenting supply is increasingly proposed as a way of mitigating water scarcity problems. Although the achievements of irrigation in ensuring food security and improving rural welfare have been impressive, past experience also indicates problems and failures of irrigated agriculture. In addition to large water use and low efficiency, environmental concerns are usually considered the most significant problem of the irrigation sector. Environmental problems include excessive water depletion, water quality reduction, water logging and salinization. In some basins (water resources), excessive diversion of river water for irrigation (and other uses) has brought environmental and ecological disasters to downstream areas, and groundwater pumping at unsustainable rates has contributed to the lowering of groundwater tables and to salt water intrusion in some coastal areas. Many water quality problems have also been created or aggravated by changes in stream flows associated with agriculture’s consumptive uses. Moving water away from agriculture to uses with higher economic value is one of the main measures widely seen as desirable. This apparent misallocation is often attributed to the failure of government to allocate water rationally. This paper focuses on achieving a sustainable balance between irrigation management and sustainable development and water investments.

Background/Objectives: A study on enhancing peanut production through drip irrigation (DI) technology was conducted to increase the productivity and profitability of peanut production in the Ilocos region, Philippines. It sought to develop irrigation management strategies suitable for peanut. Methods/Statistical analysis: Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) simulation was done, and field validation was conducted to achieve the objectives. The simulation activity led to the determination of the top three promising drip irrigation management schemes suitable for peanut production, which were then field validated through actual field set-up in three different locations. The best scheme (DI S9 410mm) was then pilot-tested at the farmers\' field and compared with Farmers\' Practice (FP) d using t-test. Findings: Using the DI scheme, dry pod yield was increased from 1.59Tha-1to 2.09Tha-1 or 31.45% increase as compared to the farmer\'s practice. This result is a little higher than the target increase in yield of 30%. Findings indicate that the DI is a much better method than FP, increasing the dry pod yield to as much as 70.21% during the dry season. Yield increase could be attributed to more even application of water and less water stress. On the other hand, water productivity was only increased by around 16% due to farmers\' limited water application. In terms of seed quality based on seed size, DI and FP are comparable. Results the economic analysis showed that yield of peanut under DI were higher by about 0.84Tha-1 to 1.16Tha-1 as compared to FP with a Return of Investment (ROI) of 0.25. In the long run, the profitability of DI could be improved through water productivity and yield improvements. Water savings was not a factor in profitability due to under-irrigation by farmers. Novelty/Applications: The use of DI technology with the developed irrigation scheme substantially contributed to the goal of increasing the productivity of and profitability of peanut. It is especially useful for areas with limited water supply for irrigation. Keywords: Drip irrigation; peanut; water productivity; water savings; DSSAT simulation

Field experiment were carried out in the experimental research farm, Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore during Samba season in the year 2018-2019 to study the physiological parameters of rice varieties under flooding irrigation and alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation practices. The experiment was laid out in a split plot design with three replication. The treatments comprised of two irrigation management viz., (M1) Flood irrigation and (M2) Alternate wetting drying respectively in main plot and Subplot eight varieties viz., (S1) Kalanamak, (S2) Jeeragasamba, (S3) Kavuni, (S4) Mappilaisamba, (S5) Improved TNAU White ponni, (S6) Bhavani, (S7) CO 51 and (S8) CO 52. The results of this study showed that the positive impact of higher photosynthetic rate and specific leaf weight; lower transpiration rate and proline content of leaves were observed with AWD irrigation management with SRI practice.

Purpose In recent days, there is a huge loss in the income of farmers due to the reasons such as low water lever and increased pesticide attack. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to establish an efficient reliable low-cost information gathering Reliable Low-Cost Information Gathering Protocol (RLCIG) protocol for agricultural water irrigation using optimal clustering and path selection technique where the RCIG protocol wrinkles the expedient statistics about the moisture and temperature of the soil and it will be installed few inches below the pipeline. Thereafter, the congregated data will augment the irrigation of water by using a decision-making algorithm. Design/methodology/approach The projected model has been inscribed mathematically by underlying the wireless sensor networks (WSN) framework with deliberation of contemporary challenges. Furthermore, the energy, cost and expanse optimization framework in the WSN framework is presented. The projected technique has been tested using network simulator and the results are also integrated MATLAB. Findings Recently, for efficacious management in the field of agriculture, the WSN has been successfully assimilated. This instigation accomplishes the irrigation management in terms of energy, cost and communication distance. The simulation result shows that the proposed model yields better results in terms of both the transmission range and cost with efficient lifetime improvement in comparisons with existing techniques. Originality/value Agriculture is the need of the time whatever invention happens in the scientific world without food production no lives survive on the earth, hence, the scientific invention should also focus on agriculture, in this contrast, the authors have proposed an efficient low-cost information gathering (RCIG) protocol for agricultural water irrigation using optimal clustering and path selection technique.

Irrigation and fertilizer are the most dominating factors, in deciding the keeping quality of potato. It is, therefore, essential to formulate the efficient, reliable and economically viable irrigation management strategy with the use of potassium nutrient in order to produce better keeping quality. The investigation comprising four levels of irrigation (25, 30, 35 and 40 mm CPE (Cumulative pan evaporation) and four levels of potash (0, 100, 125 and 150 kg/ha) was carried out at Research Farm of the Department of Vegetable Science, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, (Haryana) Hisar, India during two years to find out the optimum level of irrigation and potash for obtaining higher yield of potatoes with better keeping quality at ambient room temperature. The potato variety used for the investigation was Kufri Bahar. The treatments were laid out in a split plot design with three replications. The increasing levels of irrigation and potash showed significant improvement in keeping quality parameters of potato. Likewise, the values for physiological loss in weight and decay loss of potato tubers (%) at 15, 30, 45 and 60 days after harvest were the lowest with irrigation level 40 mm CPE and application of potash @ 150 kg/ha. The two years results suggest that the irrigation level 40 mm CPE along with potash @ 150 kg/ha has shown the best treatment combination for the storage of potato at ambient room temperature under semiarid conditions of Hisar (Haryana).

Irrigation is necessary to help meet the high demand for water by sugarcane in several countries including Brazil and Australia. The crop irrigation requirements are typically estimated using the crop coefficient-reference evapotranspiration (Kc-ETo) procedure. Sugarcane evapotranspiration rates were measured in three different sugarcane-producing regions of the world, and crop coefficients (Kc) were derived for those diverse environments, irrigation methods, and farming systems, therefore representing a robust basis for irrigation management. We also verified the occurrence of the inverse relation between Kc and ETo found in previous studies. Two experiments in Brazil and one in Australia were used for the analysis. Our data showed that Kc for a full canopy cover was lower than 1.0 in the three experimental sites and that sugarcane evapotranspiration (ETc) seems to be limited and exceeds ETo only when this is below 4 mm day−1. In one of the Brazilian experiments, Kc declined at higher rates than in the other two experiments, and for the three sites, average Kc was 0.77 and 0.87, respectively, for initial and full cover phase when ETo > 6 mm day−1. The increase of aerodynamic and other upstream resistances to water transport of plants appears to be one of the reasons for Kc to decrease at high levels of ETo. Based on our data and the literature, the Kc values provided by Allen et al. (1998) could overestimate the irrigation needs of sugarcane under high evaporative demand conditions. Irrigation management based on Kc should use the average ETo from the preceding 3 days before irrigating to save water and energy while maintaining high yield levels.

Adaptive planning in climate change condition is a significant challenge for effective management of water resources and agricultural systems. One of the major controversial issues in climate change adaptation studies is deeply uncertain nature of such changes. This study aimed at planning optimal agricultural adaptation measures under deep climate uncertainty in a semi-arid basin in Iran (Tashk–Bakhtegan Basin) using a simulation–optimization (S–O) approach. To fulfil this objective, a modified version of Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) entitled SWAT-PARS was used to simulate the status of the basin regarding water resources and agricultural sector. By combining the SWAT model with a NSGA-II based robust optimization model, the optimal and robust type and location of robust agricultural management measures under climate uncertainty were determined. For this purpose, deficit irrigation, irrigation efficiency increase, cropping pattern change and cropping date change were considered as effective adaptation measures in the agricultural sector. The robustness of optimal measures was analyzed by a multi objective robust decision making approach using satisficing and regret robustness assessment methods. The robustness analysis of management strategies under climate change indicated different prioritization of strategies by “satisficing” and “regret” robustness assessment indicators. According to the results, irrigation management measures, and changes in the cropping pattern and date have been recommended in most strategies provided by different robustness methods. Most measures recommended have been able to reduce system vulnerability concerning in groundwater’s quantitative changes and calorie of agricultural products, but did not cause any significant change in the system concerning inflow to the lake.

The scarcity of freshwater around the world is becoming a serious issue, so there is a dire need to come up with a solution for effective utilization of water resources. Basically, agriculture depends on monsoon which is not a sufficient water source. The Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine Learning (ML) based smart irrigation system is employed in the field of agriculture to overcome the problem of water resource management. In this work, a smart irrigation system is proposed to predict the irrigation requirement of the field using several environmental parameters along with weather forecasting that assists the growth of the crop. This system proposes the idea of training the ensemble method in ML using the collected real-time data to make an optimized decision. This prediction model helps in reducing the traditional irrigation methods, thereby conserving water, labor and plant nutrients. This system provides a low-cost prototype model with advanced technological features with a fully functional system and the observed results are optimal with 90% accuracy.