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The challenge of meeting the ever-increasing food demand for the growing population will be further exacerbated by climate change in Ethiopia. This paper presents the simulated economy-wide impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector of Ethiopia using a dynamic computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. The study simulated the scenarios of agricultural productivity change induced by climate change up to the year 2050. At national level, the simulation results suggest that crop production will be adversely affected during the coming four decades and the severity will increase over the time period. Production of teff, maize and sorghum will decline by 25.4, 21.8 and 25.2 percent, respectively by 2050 compared to the base period. Climate change will also cause losses of 31.1 percent agricultural GDP at factor cost by 2050. Climate change affects more the income and consumption of poor rural households than urban rural non-farming households. The reduction in agricultural production will not be evenly distributed across agro ecological zones, and will not all be negative. Among rural residents, climate change impacts tend to hurt the income of the poor more in drought prone regions. Income from labor, land and livestock in moisture sufficient highland cereal-based will decline by 5.1, 8.8 and 15.2 percent in 2050. This study indicated that since climate change is an inevitable phenomenon, the country should start mainstreaming adaptation measures to sustain the overall performance of the economy.

Climate variability and change make agricultural sector a risky venture for smallholders’ farmers. This paper presents an assessment of smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate variability and change, associated impacts on agricultural sector and the adaptive responses given in Fincha’a sub-basin of the Blue Nile River Basin of Ethiopia. We interviewed 380 head of households selected through systematic random sampling from eight Kebeles, two each from highland, midland, wetland, and lowland agro-ecosystems. Furthermore, focus group discussion and key informant interviews also performed to supplement and substantiate the quantitative data. Descriptive statistics used to summarize quantitative data and χ2 tests used to measure significance. The result revealed that increased temperature, frequency and severity of extreme weather events (drought and flood), and overall change in seasonality of rainfall over the last 20 years is a widely held perception. The associated impacts on agriculture include decline in length of growing period, the decreased and variability of water availability, increased crop damage by insects, pests, disease and weeds. In response, farmers practiced different adaptation measures like modification in crop and livestock production practices, and investment in land and water management activities at household and community level. The study also revealed the presence of multiple barriers that hindered the adoption of adaptation measures. To meet the impending challenges, situate by climate variability and change the adaptation measures implemented until now is not adequate. There is also extrication between farmers’ perceptions of climate variability and change, and actual adaptation level. Despite significant number of farmers’ perceived changes in temperature (about 93%) and rainfall (about 88%), the number of farmers adopted certain adaptation measures are below average. These necessitate the need for planned interventions to identify and support effective adaptation measures.

Background Ethiopia is frequently cited as a country that is highly vulnerable to climate variability and change. The country’s high vulnerability arises mostly from climate-sensitive agricultural sector that suffers a lot from risks associated with rainfall variability. The vulnerability factors (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity) of the agricultural livelihoods to climate variability and change differ across agro-ecological systems (AESs). Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze AES-specific vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate variability and change in the Fincha’a sub-basin. We surveyed 380 respondents from 4 AESs (highland, midland, wetland, and lowland) randomly selected. Furthermore, focus group discussion and key informant interviews were also performed to supplement and substantiate the quantitative data. Livelihood vulnerability index was employed to analyze the levels of smallholders’ agriculture vulnerability to climate variability and change. Data on socioeconomic and biophysical attribute were collected and combined into the indices and vulnerability score was calculated for each agro-ecological system. Results Considerable variation was observed across the agro-ecological systems in profile, indicator, and the three livelihood vulnerability indices-Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change dimensions (exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity) of vulnerability. The lowland AES exhibited higher exposure, low adaptive capacity, and high vulnerability, while the midland AES demonstrated lower exposure, higher adaptive capacity, and lower vulnerability. The wetland and highland AESs scored intermediate results. Conclusion Our results suggest that resilience-building adaptation strategies are vital to reduce the vulnerability of smallholder farmers. The measures taken should consider site-specific agro-ecological system requirements to reduce the vulnerability of smallholder mixed crop-livestock agriculture system. Since the approach based on the long-term realization of the community, any strategy designed based on such assessments is applicable to local condition.

The headwaters of the Blue Nile River in Ethiopia contain fragile mountain ecosystems and are highly susceptible to land degradation that impacts water quality and flow dynamics in a major transboundary river system. This study evaluates the status of land use/cover (LULC) change and key drivers of change over the past 31 years through a combination of satellite remote sensing and surveying of the local understanding of LULC patterns and drivers. Seven major LULC types (forest land, plantation forest, grazing land, agriculture land, bush and shrub land, bare land, and water bodies) from Landsat images of 1986, 1994, 2007, and 2017 were mapped. Agriculture and plantation forest land use/cover types increased by 21.4% and 368.8%, respectively, while other land use/cover types showed a decreasing trend: water body by 50.0%, bare land by 7.9%, grassland by 41.7%, forest by 28.9%, and bush and shrubland by 38.4%. Overall, 34.6% of the landscape experienced at least one LULC transition over the past 31 years, with 15.3% representing the net change and 19.3% representing the swap change. The percentage change in plantation forest land increased with an increasing altitude and slope gradient during the study period. The mapped LULC changes are consistent with the pressures reported by local residents. They are also consistent with root causes that include population growth, land tenure and common property rights, persistent poverty, weak enforcement of rules and low levels of extension services, a lack of public awareness, and poor infrastructure. Hence, the drivers for LULC should be controlled, and sustainable resources use is required, otherwise, these resources will soon be lost and will no longer be able to play their role in socioeconomic development and environmental sustainability.

This paper explores the different components of the adaptive capacity of households in the Central Rift Valley (CRV) of Ethiopia and quantifies their relative contributions. The data were derived from a survey of 413 households randomly selected from four Kebeles (the smallest government administrative units) in the CRV. The adaptive capacity of the households was assessed using the Local Adaptive Capacity (LAC) framework and measured in terms of both aggregate and composite indices, with sixty indicators distributed across five major components and subcomponents. The index score for major components shows that intangible variables such as institutions and entitlements, knowledge and information, and innovation contributed to adaptive capacity better than decision&ndash, making and governance and asset&ndash, base. The composite indices for sub&ndash, components showed that the contribution of woodlands to adaptive capacity was positive and superior to other natural assets. Grazing land was the next best contributor, while farmland and water resources made a much lower contribution. The findings of this study are useful to better understand the nature of adaptive capacity and its components at the household level. This study suggests the need for an integrated assessment and enhancement of adaptive capacity with all its components rather than focusing only on asset possession as an indicator of adaptive capacity.

Analysis of climate variability and trends frequently takes place at large scale. For agricultural applications, however, highly localized climate conditions can be critically important. This certainly applies to tropical highland regions, where dissected topography and convectively dominated precipitation processes can lead to strong variability in both mean climate conditions and year-to-year climate variability. This study examines recent climate variability and trends (1981–2016) on Choke Mountain, located in the western Ethiopian Highlands. Through analysis of precipitation and temperature records at monitored locations, we explore observed variability in climate patterns and trends across sites and seasons. The lens for our spatial analysis is the agroecosystem (AES), defined on the basis of prevailing climate and cropping systems, which currently serve as the foundation for climate adaptation planning in the region. We find that interannual temperature variability is greatest in the hottest, driest AES, and is most pronounced in the dry season. All AES warmed significantly in all seasons over the analysis period, but the magnitude of trend was greatest in high elevation AES. Precipitation variability was also large across AES, with largest interannual variability found in the dry season. This season is frequently excluded in climate analyses, but it is a critical harvest time and irrigation period. Trends in rainfall anomaly and precipitation concentration index are less clear, but there is a tendency towards drying and increasing irregularity of rainfall. Interestingly, we find little association between the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and temperature or precipitation variability at our study sites. This suggests that even though ENSO is a widely recognized driver of large-scale rainfall variability in the region, its impacts are highly spatially variable. This has implications for applying ENSO-based precipitation outlooks to agricultural management decisions. Farmer interviews reveal that local perceptions of climate variability and trends are generally consistent with the objective observations.

Woodlands, which are part of the landscape and an important source of livelihood for smallholders living in the environmentally vulnerable Central Rift Valley (CRV) of Ethiopia, are experiencing rapid changes. Detecting and monitoring these changes is essential for better management of the resources and the benefits they provide to people. The study used a combination of both quantitative and qualitative methods to analyze the extent and pattern of woodland cover changes from 1973 to 2013. Pixel-based supervised image classification with maximum likelihood classification algorithm was used for land cover classification and change detection analyses. Local peoples&rsquo, perceptions were used to explain the patterns of change and their possible reasons. Four major land cover classes were identified, with an overall accuracy of 88.3% and a Kappa statistic of 0.81 for the latest image. The analysis revealed a major land cover reversal, where woodland (92.4%) was the dominant land cover in 1973, while it was agriculture (44.7%) in 2013. A rapid reduction in woodland (54%) and forest (99%) covers took place between 1973 and 2013, with the majority of the conversions being made during the government transition period (1973 to 1986). Agriculture (3878%) and grassland (11,117%) increased tremendously during the 40-year period at the expense of woodlands and forests. Bare land increased moderately (40%). Thus, woodlands are under increasing pressure from other land uses, particularly agriculture, and declining faster. If the current trends of land cover change remain unabated it is likely that woodlands will disappear from the landscape of the area in the near future. Therefore, better forest policy and implementation tools, as well as better woodland management strategies and practices, need to be in place for woodlands to continue providing vital ecosystem goods and services to the local people, as well as to the environment.

The concept of the water-energy-food (W-E-F) nexus has quickly ascended to become a global framing for resource management policies. Critical studies, however, are questioning its value for assessing the sustainability of local livelihoods. These critiques flow in part from the perception that the majority of influential nexus analyses begin from a large-scale, implicitly top-down perspective on resource dynamics. This can lead to efficiency narratives that reinforce existing power dynamics without adequate consideration of local priorities. Here, we present a community-scale perspective on large W-E-F oriented infrastructure. In doing so, we link the current debate on the nexus with alternative approaches to embrace questions of water distribution, political scales, and resource management. The data for this paper come from a survey of 549 households conducted around two large-scale irrigation and hydropower dams in the Upper Blue Nile basin of Ethiopia. The data analysis involved descriptive statistics, logistic analysis, and multinomial logistic analysis. The two case studies presented show that the impact of dams and the perception thereof is socially diverse. Hydropower dams and irrigation schemes tend to enhance social differences and may therefore lead to social transformation and disintegration. This becomes critical when it leads to higher vulnerability of some groups. To take these social factors/conditions into consideration, one needs to acknowledge the science-policy interface and make the nexus approach more political. The paper concludes that if the nexus approach is to live up to its promise of addressing sustainable development goals by protecting the livelihoods of vulnerable populations, it has to be applied in a manner that addresses the underlying causes that produce winners and losers in large-scale water infrastructure developments.

Background Crop productivity in the highlands of Ethiopia is critically challenged by land degradation and climate change and variability. Massive plantations and several kilometers of soil and water conservation technologies have been practiced in response to those challenges. Yet land degradation and the level of sustainability of the technologies have continued to be critical challenges. Thus, the objective of this research was to examine the sustainability, challenges and future prospect of climate smart community-based soil and water conservation practices. Data were collected using household survey, key informant interview and focus group discussion. Analytic hierarchy process for multi-criteria decision making was used to analyze the sustainability of community-based climate smart practices. Results The finding revealed that the overall score of the sustainability dimensions was about 67.5%, which lies in the zone of “sustained but at risk.” The institutional arrangement has limitations in that farmers were involved in implementation phase while there is little room in planning, monitoring and evaluation phases. The major challenges of the soil and water conservation practices were: destruction of the communal forests and structures for personal benefits, overlapping work calendar with irrigation and off-farm works and structures wasted farmland. Conclusions The success of the structures from the perspective of officials is expressed in terms of the numbers of kilometers constructed and community participation. However, it overlooks how it reduces the problem of land degradation and challenge of climate change and variability. Thus, in order to sustain the structures, direct participation of farmers at all stages of the work is encouraged. The sustainability of structures can also be partly ensured if it generates benefit to the local community.

Smallholder rainfed agriculture, which is the mainstay of rural communities in Ethiopia, is negatively affected by climate change. Understanding the adaptations being practiced and factors which determine decision in adoption is vital in designing viable strategies. A cross-sectional survey research design was employed to collect data from 384 randomly selected smallholder farmers to identify adaptation measures being undertaken and to estimate the prominent determinants in the adoption of adaptations in drought-prone areas of north-central Ethiopia. Data were analyzed using percentage, weighted mean index, Chi-square test, t test and multinomial regression model and triangulated with thematic analysis. Around 96% of the respondents have perceived a change in climate and 65.4% employed adaptation measures. Stone/soil bund, changing the farming calendar and switching to short maturing varieties are the most widely practiced adaptations. Barriers inhibiting smallholder farmers from taking adaptation measures were financial constraint, lack of affordable technologies, lack of knowledge, limited access to early warning, uncertainty about the future, shortage of land and scarcity of water. The results from the multinomial discrete choice model revealed that age and educational level of the head, family size, herd size, access to training, access to microfinance, extension services, remittance and perceiving that climate change can be adapted influenced the selection of adaptations. Overcoming financial constraint, strengthening extension service, providing timely information and early warning, intensifying irrigation, integration of non-farm sources of livelihood in the farming system and land resource management would enable to enhance the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers.

Climate change is expected to have severe negative impacts on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in developing countries. However, smallholder farmers and governments in these regions tend to be ill-prepared for the impacts of climate change. We present the results of a stakeholder-based multi-criteria analysis of climate change adaptation options for agriculture, natural resource management and water management in the upper Blue-Nile basin in Ethiopia. We use the PROMETHEE II outranking method to analyse data from a survey in which farmers and experts were asked to evaluate adaptation options based on potentially conflicting criteria. Adaptation options for soil and land management, such as crop rotation and composting, score high based on two sets of criteria for assessing adaptation options for agriculture. River diversion, preventing leaching and erosion, and drip irrigation are ranked highest as adaptation options for water management. Regarding natural resource management, the highest ranked adaptation options are afforestation, water retention and maximizing crop yield. Rankings by farmers and by experts are weakly correlated for agriculture and water management, and negatively correlated for natural resource management, which shows the importance of extension services and of involving farmers in the decision-making process to ensure the feasibility of adaptation options.

Analysis of Rainfall onset date (OD), cessation date (CD), and length of growing period (LGP) for specific sites in highly dissected topography and highly variable climate may not provide actionable information for crop production planning. In tropical highland regions information on these parameters is scant at a resolution relevant for targeted management. This study examined recent (1981-2016) OD, CD, and LGP variability and trends for the main rainy season in different agroecosystems (AESs) in the northwestern Ethiopian Highlands. Onset criteria were derived from surveys, rainfall data, and previous literature whereas cessation criteria were set from the soil water holding capacity (WHC), daily reference evapotranspiration (ETo), and daily rainfall in each site. Dry spells (DS) were analyzed for the small rainy season in higher elevation AESs where the season is relevant for potato production. All analyses were performed using site specific data grouped by agroecosystem (AES), a unit that has similar climate, soil, crop, and farm management for better agricultural decisions. Results show high inter-annual variability of OD and CD, and LGP exhibited a significant trend in some AES and greater variability in higher elevation AES. Generally, trend analysis results showed early onset and cessation of rainfall. Significant increasing trends and variabilities in DS and OD may significantly affect crop production and thus AES specific crop production calendar should be revised to minimize crop failure. The analysis also confirmed that farmers perception is consistent with meteorological analysis. The results emphasize the importance of AES-based improved seasonal weather forecasts and tailored climate information services to guide farm decisions and improve management of climate variability by smallholder farmers. It also concluded that AES level analysis can better provide actionable information for decision makers and growers than site specific and scattered studies as mosaic results are reported between sites grouped in the same agroecosystem.

Smallholder farmers’ decisions to adopt adaptation options in response to climate change and variability are influenced by socioeconomic, institutional, and environmental factors, indicating that decision patterns can be very specific to a given locality. The prime objective of this research is to identify factors affecting smallholder farmers’ decisions to adopt adaptation options to climate change and variability in the Muger River sub-basin of the Blue Nile basin of Ethiopia. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire, focused group discussions, and key informant interviews from 442 sampled households. Frequency, mean, Chi-square test, and one-way ANOVA were used for analysis. Furthermore, a multinomial logit model was employed to analyze the data. Results signified that small-scale irrigation, agronomic practices, livelihood diversification, and soil and water conservation measures are the dominant adaptation options that smallholder farmers used to limit the negative impact of climate change and variability in the study area. The results further revealed that adoption of small-scale irrigation as an adaptation to climate change and variability is significantly and positively influenced by access to credit, social capital, and the educational status of household heads. Greater distance to marketplace and size of farmland negatively affected the use of agronomic practices, whereas crop failure experience and access to early warning systems have a positive influence. The results also point out that adoption of soil and water conservation measures are positively affected by exposure to early warning systems, greater distance to the marketplace, and larger size of cultivated land. It is also noted that livelihood diversification is negatively influenced by socioeconomic factors such as education, the gender of the household head, and livestock ownership. Overall, the results suggested that improved policies aimed at increasing the adoption of adaptation options to offset the impact of climate change and variability should focus on: creating effective microfinance institutions and effective early warning systems, increasing farmer awareness, improving infrastructure, and encouraging farmers’ membership to many social groups. The results further suggested that agroecological and gender-based research should be promoted and increased for a more holistic understanding of farmer adaptation options.

Smallholder farmers can adapt to climate variability and change through sustainable land management (SLM) practices that help to offset the negative impacts at farm level. However, use of these practices as adaptation strategy remains low in Ethiopia in general and the study sites in particular. This study aimed at examining the factors that determine farmers’ decision to use SLM measures and to quantify the impact of the practices on crop productivity at household and plot level. The study was based on household- and plot-level primary data and employed nearest-neighbor matching technique to quantify the impact of using the practices on value of production at household level and plot level. The results revealed that households that implemented SLM practices within the period (2004–2009) experienced a 24.1% higher value of production over non-users in 2016. Similarly, plots that received SLM measures within the period (2004–2009) experienced a 28.6% increase in value of production in 2016. The study also made further analysis at plot level using continuous treatment effects in order to take into account the number of years a plot has been under the practice. The result showed plots with SLM structure that are maintained for at least 6 years have a positive increase in value of production at the end of the 6th year, while those that received the practices recently or those that lacked continuous maintenance did not experience a statistically significant increase in value of production. The result also showed marginal benefit of sustaining the SLM practices increases over time at an increasing rate. The implication is that use of SLM measures and maintenance of the structures are crucial to reap significant benefits from the practices. Although value of production increases given the SLM practices, implementation is labor intensive and there is trade-off with other agricultural activities. Therefore, policy measures are required to incentivize implementation and maintenance of the SLM structures.

Diversifying the sources of livelihood for subsistence farmers beyond agriculture plays a significant role in reducing poverty as well as withstanding the adverse impacts of climate change. A cross-sectional survey research design has been employed to examine the factors which determine the participation of rainfed-dependent smallholder farmers in non-farm activities using a mixed methods approach. Data were obtained from 384 randomly selected households in the Woleka sub-basin of Ethiopia. Data were collected using survey questionnaires and interviews were analyzed using mean, percentage, chi-square test, t-test, one-way ANOVA, binary logistic regression model and thematic analysis. Access to adequate capital, poor infrastructure and lack of training are the major constraints which hindered farmers from undertaking non-farm activities. The regression model result revealed that several factors determine the propensity of smallholder farmers’ participation to non-farm activities. Better-off househo...

Climate change is impacting climate sensitive rural livelihood systems. Exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity of agricultural livelihoods to climate variability and change differ across agro-ecologies and these pose a challenge to climate resilient development strategy. This study assesses agro-ecology specific vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate change and variability in the Dabus Watershed (North-west Ethiopia), based on a survey of 734 farm households complemented with focus group discussion and key informant interviews. Recognizing the physiographic and climatic diversity that exists across agro-ecologies in the study area, Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) framed within the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) vulnerability framework (LVI-IPCC) is adapted to assess agro-ecology specific vulnerability in two local agro-ecologies, namely wet lowland and dry lowland. For each agro-ecology, exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity indices as well as LVI-IPCC vulnerability score was calculated. The result shows that the dry lowland agro-ecology has a relatively higher exposure and sensitivity to climate stresses with a comparatively limited adaptive capability. On the other hand, the wet lowland agro-ecology exhibits intermediate vulnerability with a relatively lower perceived exposure and higher adaptive capacity. Higher exposure relative to adaptive capacity resulted in a positive LVI-IPCC score in the dry lowland agro-ecology and positioned it in more vulnerable level than the wet lowland. A higher adaptive capacity relative to exposure unveils a negative LVI-IPCC score for the wet lowland agro-ecology and positioned it in a moderate vulnerability category. In line with the findings, there is a need to set agro-ecology specific priorities for intervention that is most needed to cop up with the effects of climate variability and change in each agro-ecology. Climate risk exposure levels can be reduced through timely provision of climate specific information and early warning systems aimed at enhancing preparedness of farm households to extreme events. It is also crucial to expand availability of infrastructural facilities such as market, health services, and veterinary services so as to enhance adaptive capacity. Supporting alternative livelihood options and enhancing water harvesting practices for supplementary irrigation also call policy attention.

Faidherbia albida trees have an unusual phenology, leafing out during the dry season and shedding leaves at the start of the rainy season. When integrated into agroforestry cropping systems, they provide substantial sustainability benefits, including adding plant nutrients and organic matter to the soil through leaf drop. Dormant during the cropping season, Faidherbia albida does not compete with the crop for light, water or nutrients and contributes nitrogen to the soil under its canopy, enhancing crop productivity. This nitrogen benefit is analyzed in relation to its equivalent in industrially manufactured urea nitrogen fertilizer, expressed in terms of the energy required to manufacture and transport an equivalent quantity of urea fertilizer. This is, in effect, a substitution of solar energy that the Faidherbia albida trees use to obtain nitrogen from the atmosphere, for the fossil fuels used in the industrial manufacture and transport of the urea fertilizer. This energy contribution by the tree, within the food energy and water system, enhances the food production potential of the system, as yields are often increased, and the resilience of the system is enhanced because the soil organic matter increases available water for the plants. This energy contribution to the Ethiopian farming system is estimated as 3.48 GJ ha -1 year -1 , based on the nitrogen contribution under full canopy cover. Additions of energy to agricultural systems frequently increase productivity and such increases can be realized through the addition of energy provided by Faidherbia agroforestry. Greenhouse gas emissions are avoided by the substitution of solar energy for fossil fuel energy, a climate change mitigation benefit estimated as 0.116 tons CO 2 ha -1 year -1 . This contribution to climate change mitigation is fundamentally different from sequestration of carbon in biomass or soil organic matter. It is a permanently avoided emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, associated with a particular cropping year, and is not reversible, unlike the benefit of carbon stored in biomass or soil organic matter, that could be released back into the atmosphere. The potential extent of Faidherbia albida agroforestry is substantial and the potential climate change mitigation benefits of its widespread use are great.

The Blue Nile Highlands of Ethiopia are a densely populated, predominantly rural region dominated by smallholder crop-livestock mixed farming systems. Population growth, coupled with low productivity, have long posed a threat to natural forest ecosystems in the region, as trees have been removed for fuelwood and to clear area for grazing or crop production. In recent years, however, there has been a trend to replace cropland with eucalyptus plantations. This change has major implications for the hydrology, soils, and agricultural economy of the region. This study examines changes in tree cover for a highland area at the center of the Blue Nile Highlands. Landsat imagery from 1986 to 2017 is applied to characterize changing tree cover patterns over space and time. We find that total tree cover in this highland region has shifted dramatically over the past 30 years. Between 1987 and 1999 there was dramatic loss of tree cover, particularly in areas of natural vegetation at high and low elevation. This period coincided with the fall of the Derg government and the transition to the current political system. In the period since 1999 there has been an increase in tree cover, with rapid gains in recent years. This increase has taken two distinct forms: regrowth in previously forested areas, due in part to active conservation measures, and the establishment of eucalyptus plantations in mid-elevation zones. The ecological and economic implications of these two types of tree cover—protected forest vs. woodlot plantations—are quite distinct, with plantation forestry providing biomass energy at a cost to food production and water resources. Mapping cropland conversion to eucalyptus in recent years makes it possible to quantify the net impacts that this trend has had on local production of energy and food, and to estimate implications for water consumption. Effective monitoring of these changes is important for the ongoing development and implementation of effective land use policy in the region.

The study aims to analyze climate variability and farmers’ perception in Southern Ethiopia. Gridded annual temperature and precipitation data were obtained from the National Meteorological Agency (NMA) of Ethiopia for the period between 1983 and 2014. Using a multistage sampling technique, 403 farm households were surveyed to substantiate farmers’ perceptions about climate variability and change. The study applied a nonparametric Sen’s slope estimator and Mann–Kendall’s trend tests to detect the magnitude and statistical significance of climate variability and binary logit regression model to find factors influencing farm households’ perceptions about climate variability over three agroecological zones (AEZs). The trend analysis reveals that positive trends were observed in the annual maximum temperature, 0.02°C/year (p<0.01) in the lowland and 0.04°C/year (p<0.01) in the highland AEZs. The positive trend in annual minimum temperature was consistent in all AEZs and significant (p<0.01). An upward trend in the annual total rainfall (10 mm/year) (p<0.05) was recorded in the midland AEZ. Over 60% of farmers have perceived increasing temperature and decreasing rainfall in all AEZs. However, farmers’ perception about rainfall in the midland AEZ contradicts with meteorological analysis. Results from the binary logit model inform that farmers’ climate change perceptions are significantly influenced by their access to climate and market information, agroecology, education, agricultural input, and village market distance. Based on these results, it is recommended to enhance farm households’ capacity by providing timely weather and climate information along with institutional actions such as agricultural extension services.

Sustainable land management (SLM) is a leading policy issue in Ethiopia. However, the adoption and continuous use of SLM technologies remain low. This study investigates the interrelationship of adopted SLM technologies and key factors of farmers’ decisions to use SLM technologies in the North Gojjam sub-basin of the Upper Blue Nile. The study was based on the investigation of cross-sectional data obtained from 414 randomly selected rural household heads, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. Descriptive statistics and Econometric models (i.e., Multivariate Probit and Poisson regression) were used to analyze quantitative data, while a content analysis method was used for qualitative data analysis. Results indicate that at least one type of SLM technology was implemented by 94% of farm households in the North Gojjam sub-basin. The most widely used technologies were chemical fertilizer, soil bund, and animal manure. Most of the adopted SLM technologies complement each other. Farm size, family size, male-headed household, local institutions, perception of soil erosion, livestock size, total income, and extension service increased the adoption probability of most SLM technologies. Plot fragmentation, household age, plot distance, off-farm income, market distance, and perception of good fertile soil discourage the adoption probability of most SLM technologies. To scale up SLM technologies against land degradation, it is important to consider households’ demographic characteristics, the capacity of farm households, and plot-level related factors relevant to the specific SLM technologies being promoted.

The dissemination of biogas technology was not progressing as it was planned in Ethiopia. Thus, this research aimed at identifying the institutional factors that influenced the dissemination of bio...

This study examined the diverse environmental impacts of domestic biogas technology in rural Ethiopia. It employed a cross-sectional survey approach involving a total of 358 sample biogas-user and non-user households. The results of the analyses showed that the substitution of traditional biomass fuels and kerosene with biogas energy enabled the biogas-user households to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on average by about 1.9 t of CO2 equivalents per digester per year. The reduced use of chemical fertilizer also assisted GHG emission reductions. Moreover, the technology helped in reducing depletion of woody biomass through improving efficiency of energy use and energy substitutions. It assisted in improving the fertility of soil via reducing biomass removals as fuel and the direct use of nutrient enriched bio-slurry. Furthermore, the reduced biomass removals contributed to carbon sequestration. To further enhance the diverse environmental benefits of the technology, proper and uninterrupted operation and utilization of the biogas technology should be ensured; skillful and standby biogas technicians should be present at reasonable distances to provide maintenance and aftersales services. An operational platform for joint stakeholders' actions should also be in place to assist in exploiting its full potential, and seeking and realizing the carbon reduction financial incentive for the households.

Introduction This study is aimed at analyzing farmers’ perception and adaptation to climate change in the Dabus watershed. It is based on analysis of data collected from 734 randomly selected farm householdheads substantiated with Focus Group Discussions and field observations. Methods The study employed descriptive methods to assess farmers’ perception of climate change, localindicators of climate change and types of adaptation measures exercised to cop up with the risk of the change in climate. The study also employed the Heckman sample selection model to analyze the two-stepprocess of adaptation to climate change which initially requires farmers’ perception that climate is changingprior to responding to the changes through adaptation measures. Results Based on the model result educational attainment, the age of the head of the household, thenumber of crop failures in the past, changes in temperature and precipitation significantly influencedfarmers’ perception of climate change in wet lowland parts of the study area. In dry lowland condition,farming experience, climate information, duration of food shortage, and the number of crop failuresexperienced determined farmers’ perception of climate change. Farmers’ adaptation decision in both the wet and dry lowland conditions is influenced by household size, the gender of household head, cultivatedland size, education, farm experience, non-farm income, income from livestock, climate information, extension advice, farm-home distance and number of parcels. However, the direction of influence and significance level of most of the explanatory variables vary between the two parts of the study area. Conclusions In line with the results, any intervention that promotes the use of adaptation measures toclimate change may account for location-specific factors that determine farmers' perception of climate change and adaptive responses thereof.

The main purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of watershed management intervention in Chena Woreda. A systematic sampling technique was used to select sample micro-watersheds, and random sampling method was used to select individual households from both intervention and non-intervention areas. Data were collected through field observation, household questionnaire survey, focused group discussion, in-depth interview and key informant interview. Moreover, physical soil and water conservation structures’ layout measurement was conducted. Descriptive statistics, t-test, chi-square test and participation index were used for data analyses. The study revealed that the intervention has good achievements in reducing soil erosion, improving water availability and quality, developing tree plantation and diversifying household income sources in the catchment. However, poor community participation, lack of the structures design alignment with standards, inappropriate time of implementation, lack of diversified soil water conservation measures, absence of regular maintenance and management of the structures were some of the major limitation of the intervention. Therefore, this study recommends that the stake-holders should make appropriate correction measures for observed failures and further interdisciplinary study should be conducted to explore the problems.

The rainwater harvesting (RWH) techniques most commonly practised in Ethiopia today are run-off irrigation (run-off farming), flood spreading (spate irrigation), in situ water harvesting (terracing, ridges, micro-basins, etc.) and roof water harvesting. While there are abundant examples and practical experiences of rainwater harvesting experience in Ethiopia, the momentum gained so far on the expansion and application of modern RWH for irrigation is below the country’s potential and needs. The major identified bottlenecks for rapid adoption of RWH for agricultural purpose in Ethiopia are high cost of construction of structures compared to income accrued as a result of the adoption of the technology; lack of trust (awareness) on the contribution of the technology; incompatibility of the technology with local farming system; lack of appropriate training how to construct, use and maintain structures; improper planning, implementation and promotion of the technology by development agents/experts; and lack of commitment to promote the technology compared with other agricultural extension activities. Large numbers of RWH and SSI technologies are already introduced in the country. Their efficiency, effectiveness, acceptance and impacts on the livelihood, however, vary considerably from place to place. An enabling environment and governmental support are essential for spreading the concept and implementation of rainwater harvesting systems on a large scale. Mainstreaming in policy agendas, awareness raising, capacity building and technical exchange are all important for enhancing the use of rainwater harvesting systems. Furthermore, land use and land ownership have to be taken into account, as well as suitable technology and storage medium. As some systems require high maintenance costs, it is important that rainwater harvesting options are made attractive for farmers themselves to invest in these technologies.

Agriculture, especially as practiced by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia is particularly vulnerable to climate change. Expanding farmers’ adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices not only reduces risk from climate change events but also contributes to enhanced productivity and hence enables sustained investment in adaptation technologies. This paper is based on analysis of data collected from 734 randomly selected farm household heads and field observations. The paper first employs Heckman sample selection model to analyze the two-step process of adaptation to climate change (perception and response). Then it employs nearest-neighbor matching techniques to measures the impact of adopting climate-smart agricultural practices. The results reveal that farmers’ decision to use the practices is influenced by agro-ecology, specifically physical, natural and social factors. The results also suggested that households that adopted the practices experienced higher productivity by 22.2% over non-users implying that climate related risks that lead to yield variability are significantly reduced. Climate smart agriculture practices are knowledge-intensive. Therefore, scaling up these adaptation benefits of climate-smart agricultural practices requires public investment to raise awareness and provide technological support.

Climate change is affecting million of people in Africa in general, in Ethiopia in particular. This situation will be further worsened by its poor state of economic development and low adaptive capacity. This paper, based on anthropological approach, deals with perceptions, indicators and adaptive strategies of climate change. The study reveals that local communities well perceived, that their local climate has changed over the last two decades. The change in turn negatively affected their physical environment. Local climate change affected communities’ agricultural activity, which is their means of subsistence. In order to cope up with the effects of climate change, communities used different adaptive strategies. Among these, they developed positive attitude towards their physical environment through discussion, and by participating in environmental rehabilitation program such as watershed management. They also shift the time of farm operation and flexible their working plan in line with rainfall availability. Moreover, changing crop varieties from traditional seed to improved ones, diversifying their crops and mobilize local labor in the form of exchange and in terms of cash are among the adaptive strategies used by the communities. However, adaptive capacities are not uniform and they are based on differences in the level of asset ownership, gender and the type of labor owned. Therefore, capacities of disadvantaged social groups such as female household heads, unhealthy and poor households need to get assistance and building their capacity is important to reduce negative climate change effects on them.

The Ethiopian government has committed to building a Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) that aims to ensure economic development whilst pursuing a low emissions pathway and building resilience to climate change. While the Government’s green economy strategy targets the financial opportunities and sustainability co-benefits of low emissions development, the climate resilient strategy focuses on managing risk and building resilience to shocks brought about by climate change. The effectiveness of these national policy processes in directing the delivery of climate finance are assessed through the use of a principles, criteria and indicators (PCI) analytical framework. The four principles of policy development considered relevant to the effective delivery of climate change finance are ease of implementation, legitimacy, coherence and transparency. The analyses of effectiveness suggest the main policy instrument, the CRGE strategy, has been well designed for ease of implementation, with coherence across the two main elements of the strategy (mitigation and adaptation). The mitigation (or green economy) element began earlier and has been influential in informing the overall growth trajectory that aims to secure for Ethiopia middle income status by 2025 in a carbon neutral way. The more recent adaptation (or climate resilience) part of the strategy has now been prepared for the agriculture, forestry, water and energy sectors. This demonstrates effective sector prioritisation so as to secure the livelihoods of those most vulnerable to climate change. Two areas are identified where further effectiveness gains may be sought for enhancing adaptation. The first concerns securing the active participation of all stakeholders in the policy process so as to maximise the likelihood of implementation of climate change programmes and projects. Second, the present policy is silent on how it will promote transparency in climate finance delivery, which is a generally-held principle of public administration. Creating additional space for non-government actors (including micro and small business entrepreneurs and community leaders) to participate in policy influencing platforms and developing and subsequently publishing performance-based measures for the allocation of climate finance are recommended for more effective implementation of Ethiopia’s CRGE climate policy.

Projections suggest that there are considerable changes in climate in Ethiopia. The rate of change will increase in the future with variations across different agro-ecological-zones. These poses challenges to policy makers to devise climate resilient development strategies, as exposure and adaptive capacity differ among society located even within common cultural and administrative units. The study assesses the livelihoods vulnerability of smallholder’s farmers in the Didessa basin applying the Livelihood Vulnerability Index framed within the LVI-IPCC vulnerability framework through cross-sectional household survey conducted on 450 households in the basin complemented with secondary data of rain fall and temperature. For each agro ecological zones, LVI index and LVI-IPCC vulnerability score was calculated. The result shows that, each of these metrics varied systematically where the lowland agro ecological zone is the most exposed zone, the highland is the most sensitive zone and the midland is the most in adaptive capacity to climate variability and change. The overall LVI-IPCC scores indicate that lowland households may be more vulnerable than highland and midland households (0.067 versus −0.012, −0.013, respectively). Overall; the lowland is the most vulnerable followed by highland Agro-ecology. The findings of the study will have policy relevance in identifying source and forms of vulnerability for better design of agro-ecological specific adaptation measure there by strengthen most vulnerable sectors. The study recommends that increasing adaptive capacity to climate variability and change to the range of climate extremes that they experience (drought, floods wheatear related shocks). The study also recommends the flexible application of LVI-IPCC as tools for the climate related analysis and impact assessment by substituting the value of the indicator that is expected to change and recalculating the overall vulnerability index. The study LVI might be used to project future vulnerability, for example under simple climate change scenarios.

To promote pesticide governance that protects the environment and human health, Ethiopia has developed a legal framework for pesticide registration and control. However, in Ethiopia, pesticides are still registered, traded and used inappropriately. This research analyses how Ethiopia's pesticide policy is implemented and identifies the barriers for an effective implementation of this policy. With a theoretical framework based on the information, motivations and resources of relevant actors, data are collected from state pesticide experts, traders and end users (farmers) through in-depth interviews. The overall result reveals that major gaps exist between pesticides policy on paper and its implementation in practice. The key policy actors scored low on each of the three characteristics: they have poor information available, have low motivation to implement policies and lack sufficient resources. Involvement of and collaboration with private actors is likely to improve the implementation of pesticide governance, and contribute to sustainability in agricultural and food systems in Ethiopia.

In topographically diverse highland terrain, socio-economic and environmental conditions can vary dramatically over relatively short distances. This presents a challenge for climate resilient development strategies, as exposure to climate variability and change, climate impacts, and adaptive capacity differ between communities located within common cultural and administrative units. The Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) framed within the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) vulnerability framework (LVI-IPCC) offers a tool to assess climate vulnerability through direct household surveys. This makes it particularly appropriate for analyses at sub-community and community scales. Here we apply the LVI-IPCC to communities of Choke Mountain, located in the Blue Nile Highlands of Ethiopia. Recognizing the physiographic and climatic diversity that exists in this mountainous environment, we implement LVI-IPCC analysis for 793 mixed crop-livestock farming households using the five distinct agroecological systems (AES) that compose the populated area of Choke Mountain as a framework for analysis. For each AES, an LVI index, adaptive capacity metric, and LVI-IPCC vulnerability score was calculated. We found that each of these metrics varied systematically across AES. High elevation sloping lands and low elevation steep lands exhibited relatively low adaptive capacity and high vulnerability while midland AES had higher capacity and lower vulnerability. These results suggest that resilience building interventions for Choke Mountain ecosystems should be targeted to address the specific circumstances of each AES. The approach of applying LVI-IPCC at AES scale could be applicable to other climate vulnerable mountainous regions.

The objective of the study was to analyze the variability of various climate indicators across the agro-climatic zones (ACZs) of the Jema watershed. The variability was analyzed considering mean annual rainfall (MARF, mm), mean daily minimum temperature (MDMinT, &deg, C), and mean daily maximum temperature (MDMaxT, &deg, C). A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to test whether group mean differences exist in the values of the indicated climatic indicators among the ACZs of the watershed. The coefficient of variation was computed to analyze the degree of climate variability among the ACZs. Rainfall and temperature data sets from 1983 to 2017 were obtained from nearby meteorological stations. The effect of climate variability in the farming system was assessed with reference to local farmers&rsquo, experience. Ultimately, the values of the stated indicators of exposure to climate variability were indexed (standardized) in order to run arithmetic functions. The MARF decreases towards sub-alpine ACZs. Based on the result of the ANOVA, the two-tailed p-value (&le, 0.04) was less than 0.05, that is, there was a significant variation in MARF, MDMaxT (&deg, C), and MDMinT (&deg, C) among the ACZs. The coefficient of variation showed the presence of variations of 0.18&ndash, 0.88 for MARF, 0.18 to 0.85 for MDMaxT, and 0.02&ndash, 0.95 for MDMinT across the ACZs. In all of the indicators of exposure to climate variability, the lowest and highest indexed values of coefficient of variation were observed in the moist&ndash, cool and sub-alpine ACZs, respectively. Overall, the aggregate indexed values of exposure to various climate indicators ranged from 0.13&ndash, 0.89 across the ACZs. The level of exposure to climate variability increased when moving from moist&ndash, cool to sub-alpine ACZs. The overall crop diversity declined across the ACZs of the watershed. Nevertheless, mainly because of the rise in temperature, the climate became suitable for cultivating maize and tef even at higher elevations. In order to adapt to the inter-annual variability of the rainy season, the process of adapting early-maturing crops and the use of improved seeds needs to be enhanced in the watershed, especially in the higher-elevation zones. It is also essential to revise traditional crop calendars and crop zones across the ACSz.

Introduction: Climate change and related extreme events are negatively affecting agricultural production where millions of smallholder farmers depend up on it. Ethiopian rain-fed agriculture system is becoming more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Identification of difference in the level of vulnerability of a system is important in selecting appropriate and effective adaption options to climate change. Thus, this study examined the vulnerability of farm household's livelihood to climate variability and change in different agroecological zones of Gurage Zone using the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) and Livelihood Vulnerability Index–Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (LVI–IPCC) methods. Data were collected from a representative of 357 sample households across three agroecological zones using a mixture of participatory methods. Results: Results suggested that although there was difference in components relative value across agroecological zones, the overall LVI indicate that Sodo woreda (District) which is found in the lowland agroecological zone was more vulnerable to climate variability and change. This study found that vulnerability differences were attributable to variations in household characteristics, lack of access to infrastructure, low level of livelihood diversification, and lack of available technologies. Conclusions: Therefore, this study calls for stakeholders to prepare context-specific intervention to reduce smallholder farmer's vulnerability to climate variability and change and strengthen the adaptive capacity of farm households. Keywords: Vulnerability Index, Agroecological zones, Gurage Zone

Index-based livestock insurance has been introduced in Borena zone of southern Ethiopia by the International Livestock Research Institute working in partnership with Oromia Insurance Company and humanitarian agencies since 2012 as an instrument to help protect pastoralists’ herders against drought related mortality of livestock. Despite the some positive success to the concerted efforts, the continued adoption of index-based livestock insurance by pastoralists and agro-pastoralists has been limited. The current study highlighted the status, and determinants of index-based livestock insurance to managing risks resulted from the changing climate in the study area. The study used household surveys from 359 sampled households, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions to collect the data. Descriptive statistics (i.e. frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation), inferential tests (Chi-square test and t-test), and binary logit model were used to analyze the collected data. The results of the current study evidenced that the adoption of indexed insurance is below expectation. The results further indicated that several factors appeared to affect demand for index-based livestock insurance. Those households in a farming system with moisture stress, those who perceived climate risks, those who aware the insurance, who are better educated, who have access to credit and off-farm activity are more likely to adopt the index-based livestock insurance. Furthermore, households who have a membership to a large number of social organizations are more likely to purchase the insurance. However, households who are far from the weather station and old aged households are less likely to purchase index-based livestock insurance. Adaptation pathways to support the uptake of index-based livestock insurance must take in to account these critical factors influencing household’s decision to adopt the insurance scheme. It is also imperative to integrate the insurance into indigenous institutions and link it with the local development process.

Tropical highland regions are experiencing rapid climate change. In these regions the adaptation challenge is complicated by the fact that elevation contrasts and dissected topography produce diverse climatic conditions that are often accompanied by significant ecological and agricultural diversity within a relatively small region. Such is the case for the Choke Mountain watersheds, in the Blue Nile Highlands of Ethiopia. These watersheds extend from tropical alpine environments at over 4000 m elevation to the hot and dry Blue Nile gorge that includes areas below 1000 m elevation, and contain a diversity of slope forms and soil types. This physical diversity and accompanying socio-economic contrasts demand diverse strategies for enhanced climate resilience and adaptation to climate change. To support development of locally appropriate climate resilience strategies across the Blue Nile Highlands, we present here an agroecosystem analysis of Choke Mountain, under the premise that the agroecosystem—the intersection of climatic and physiographic conditions with agricultural practices—is the most appropriate unit for defining adaptation strategies in these primarily subsistence agriculture communities. To this end, we present two approaches to agroecosystem analysis that can be applied to climate resilience studies in the Choke Mountain watersheds and, as appropriate, to other agroecologically diverse regions attempting to design climate adaptation strategies. First, a full agroecoystem analysis was implemented in collaboration with local communities. It identified six distinct agroecosystems that differ systematically in constraints and adaptation potential. This analysis was then paired with an objective landscape classification trained to identify agroecosystems based on climate and physiographic setting alone. It was found that the distribution of Choke Mountain watershed agroecosystems can, to first order, be explained as a function of prevailing climate. This suggests that the conditions that define current agroecosystems are likely to migrate under a changing climate, requiring adaptive management strategies. These agroecosystems show a remarkable degree of differentiation in terms of production orientation and socio-economic characteristics of the farming communities suggesting different options and interventions towards building resilience to climate change.

Ethiopia is a largely agrarian country with nearly 85% of its employment coming from agriculture. Nevertheless, it is not known how much land is under cultivation. Mapping land cover at finer resolution and global scales has been particularly difficult in Ethiopia. The study area falls in a region of high mapping complexity with environmental challenges which require higher quality maps. Here, remote sensing is used to classify a large area of the central and northwestern highlands into eight broad land cover classes that comprise agriculture, grassland, woodland/shrub, forest, bare ground, urban/impervious surfaces, water, and seasonal water/marsh areas. We use data from Landsat spectral bands from 2000 to 2011, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and its temporal mean and variance, together with a digital elevation model, all at 30-m spatial resolution, as inputs to a supervised classifier. A Support Vector Machines algorithm (SVM) was chosen to deal with the size, variability and non-parametric nature of these data stacks. In post-processing, an image segmentation algorithm with a minimum mapping unit of about 0.5 hectares was used to convert per pixel classification results into an object based final map. Although the reliability of the map is modest, its overall accuracy is 55%—encouraging results for the accuracy of agricultural uses at 85% suggest that these methods do offer great utility. Confusion among grassland, woodland and barren categories reflects the difficulty of classifying savannah landscapes, especially in east central Africa with monsoonal-driven rainfall patterns where the ground is obstructed by clouds for significant periods of time. Our analysis also points out the need for high quality reference data. Further, topographic analysis of the agriculture class suggests there is a significant amount of sloping land under cultivation. These results are important for future research and environmental monitoring in agricultural land use, soil erosion, and crop modeling of the Abay basin.

Ethiopia has become warmer over the past century and human induced climate change will bring further warming over the next century at unprecedented rates. On the average, climate models show a tendency for higher mean annual rainfall and for wetter conditions, in particular during October, November and December, but there is much uncertainty about the future amount, distribution, timing and intensity of rainfall. Ethiopia's low level of economic development, combined with its heavy dependence on agriculture and high population growth rate make the country particularly susceptible to the adverse effects of climate change. Nearly 90% of Ethiopia's population lives in the Highlands, which include the critical Blue Nile (Abay) Highlands--a region that holds special importance due to its role in domestic agricultural production and international water resources. A five year study of climate vulnerability and adaptation strategies in communities of Choke Mountain, located in the center of the Abay Highlands, has informed a proposed framework for enhancing climate resilience in communities across the region. The framework is motivated by the critical need to enhance capacity to cope with climate change and, subsequently, to advance a carbon neutral and climate resilient economy in Ethiopia. The implicit hypothesis in applying a research framework for this effort is that science-based information, generated through improved understanding of impacts and vulnerabilities of local communities, can contribute to enhanced resilience strategies. We view adaptation to climate change in a wider context of changes, including, among others, market conditions, the political-institutional framework, and population dynamics. From a livelihood perspective, culture, historical settings, the diversity of income generation strategies, knowledge, and education are important factors that contribute to adaptive capacities. This paper reviews key findings of the Choke Mountain study, describes the principles of the climate resilience framework, and proposes an implementation strategy for climate resilient development to be applied in the Abay Highlands, with potential expansion to agricultural communities across the region and beyond.

Climate resilience in subsistence agricultural communities depends strongly on the robustness and effective management of the agricultural natural resource base. For this reason, adaptation planning efforts frequently focus on natural resource conservation as the primary motivation for and primary outcome of adaptation activities. Here, we present an analysis of the sustainability of community based adaptation (CBA) activities in 20 community based organizations (CBO) that were established in the Blue Nile Highlands of Ethiopia in order to promote resilience to climate change. CBA sustainability was assessed through multi-criteria analysis using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). Sustainability was considered for social, institutional, technical, financial, and environmental dimensions, with second-order indicators or factors defined for each dimension. According to this analysis, CBA efforts of two thirds of the COBs studied were found to be unsustainable in all dimensions and CBA efforts of the remaining CBOs were found to be at risk of unsustainability. A number of barriers to CBA sustainability were identified, including inadequacies in community participation, training of local community members, local government commitment, farmer capacity, and bureaucratic efficiency. Participatory evaluation of CBA, however, revealed that many of these barriers can be attributed to the decision to use conservation of natural resources as the primary framework for CBA activities. Based on this evaluation, new efforts have been developed that use markets as the entry and exit points for sustainability activities. Lessons learned in this project are relevant for CBA efforts in other agricultural regions of the developing world.

The Blue Nile (Abay) Highlands of Ethiopia are characterized by significant interannual climate variability, complex topography and associated local climate contrasts, erosive rains and erodible soils, and intense land pressure due to an increasing population and an economy that is almost entirely dependent on smallholder, low-input agriculture. As a result, these highland zones are highly vulnerable to negative impacts of climate variability. As patterns of variability and precipitation intensity alter under anthropogenic climate change, there is concern that this vulnerability will increase, threatening economic development and food security in the region. In order to overcome these challenges and to enhance sustainable development in the context of climate change, it is necessary to establish climate resilient development strategies that are informed by best-available Earth System Science (ESS) information. This requirement is complicated by the fact that climate projections for the Abay Highlands contain significant and perhaps irreducible uncertainties. A critical challenge for ESS, then, is to generate and to communicate meaningful information for climate resilient development in the context of a highly uncertain climate forecast. Here we report on a framework for applying ESS to climate resilient development in the Abay Highlands, with a focus on the challenge of reducing land degradation.

This study conducted in western Kenya demonstrates how a gendered intersectionality lens can be used to explore how and the extent to which farming communities are coping with climate change. Results from a quantitative survey undertaken with 51 farmers and from 4 focused group discussions held with 33 farmers (19 males and 14 females) indicate that 85% of the respondents are willing to adopt climate-smart agriculture (CSA) interventions if constraining factors are resolved.This study reveals that farmers, regardless of whether they are male or female, are willing to adopt climate smart technologies and practices. However, factors such as ethnicity, education, age and marital status determine the levels of uptake of CSA technologies and practices. Looking at crops for instance, we find a high uptake (62.7%) of improved high yielding varieties (HYVs) amongst farmers with primary level education, meaning literacy levels influence adoption of practices. Analysis using age as a lens reveals that there is a high uptake among the youth and adults. Interestingly, the study site comprises of both the Luo and Kalenjin ethnic communities and even though they neighbor each other, we find a high rate of uptake among the Luo community due to existing social and cultural norms and practices related to farming. In conclusion, using a gendered intersectionality lens strengthens the argument for targeted interventions which focus on local needs and priorities while recognizing local contexts as informed by social, cultural and economic factors.