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This chapter reviews the evidence on the labor market returns to investing in a college education for students in the U.S. First, we describe the primary method used to estimate the return on investment and catalog the main datasets used. We then summarize the available evidence on the returns to different awards and other types of investment. We show how earnings gains clearly vary with the incremental level and quality of postsecondary education. Completing a bachelor’s degree is associated with large gains in earnings amounting to at least one-quarter million dollars on average over the lifetime. Completing an associate degree is associated with sizeable and persistent earnings advantages over no college award. Completing a certificate can yield earnings gains, but these are variable and may only be temporary. Looking at field of study and college characteristics, we also find clear evidence of variability in returns. Finally, we consider the skills of college students need, both in their current occupations and in the future as robots and computers impact on what workers do. Overall, we find most college investments to have strong labor market pay-offs and that these pay-offs are unlikely to diminish in the near future.

Cost-effectiveness analysis is rarely used in education. When it is used, it often fails to meet methodological standards, especially with regard to cost measurement. Although there are occasional criticisms of these failings, we believe that it is useful to provide a listing of the more common concerns and how they might be addressed. Based upon both previous projects on the subject and a recent project that attempted to construct cost-effectiveness comparisons from the What Works Clearinghouse of the Institute of Educational Sciences of the U.S. Department of Education, we have identified a set of recommendations for practice that should have high priority if we are to construct valid cost-effectiveness comparisons for policy uses when choosing among alternative educational interventions.

In ShortCost-cutting policies have hurt community college student outcomes and weakened the capacity of those colleges to produce returns to students and taxpayers.Many colleges are instituting ref...

This paper examines the institutional determinants of federal loan status for a recent cohort of college students. We first set out how institutions influence loan accumulations and repayment rates, with particular focus on for-profit colleges. We then test a set of hypotheses about loan status and repayment using national data on loans, defaults, and repayments merged with college-level data. For all measures of loan status there are significant raw gaps between for-profit colleges and public and not-for-profit colleges. After controlling for student characteristics, measures of college quality, and college practices, large gaps in loan balance per student remain: students in for-profit colleges, especially the 2-year colleges, borrow approximately four times as much as they would have at a 2-year public college. For a student attending the ‘average’ college, their repayment rate is predicted to be 5 [9] percentage points lower if that college is for-profit compared to public [non-profit]. Repayment rates are also lower for colleges with higher proportions of minority students and with lower graduation rates; contrary to some claims, single-program institutions appear to have higher repayment rates.

This article offers a replication for Britain of Brown and Heywood's analysis of the determinants of performance appraisal in Australia. Although there are some important limiting differences between our two datasets — the Australia Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (AWIRS) and the Workplace Employment Relations Survey (WERS) — we reach one central point of agreement and one intriguing shared insight. First, performance appraisal is negatively associated with tenure: where employers cannot rely on the carrot of deferred pay or the stick of dismissal to motivate workers, they will tend to rely more on monitoring, ceteris paribus. Second, employer monitoring and performance pay may be complementary. However, consonant with the disparate results from the wider literature, there is more modest agreement on the contribution of specific human resource management practices, and still less on the role of job control.

An individual's human capital has a strong influence in earnings. Yet, individual worker‐level estimations of earnings rarely include the characteristics of co‐workers or detailed firm‐level controls. In particular, co‐workers skills are ignored which may be particularly significant where team work is important. This paper utilises a unique matched work‐place data set to estimate the effect on the earnings of co‐workers' education and training in the Hotel and Catering sector, which contains a high proportion of low paying establishments and in the Retail sector which contains a large absolute number of low paying establishments. The data are derived from the 1998 British Workplace Employment Relations Survey. This is a national sample based on interviews with managers in 2,191 establishments with at least ten workers. In addition, a survey of up to 25 randomly selected employees in each establishment was undertaken which included questions on education, training, pay and job satisfaction, as well as a range of other personal and workplace characteristics. We have, therefore, a matched workplace employee sample which is essential for this type of analysis. The results suggest that there are strong co‐worker effects in the earnings of individuals when controlling the individual's own level of education. While there are also high returns to training for individual workers, there are no similar spillover effects from the training of co‐workers in these sectors. Nevertheless, this suggests that there could well be a pay‐off to the professionalisation of service sector jobs.

A significant body of literature suggests that enterprises in the public education sector may differ from 'standard production' market firms in important ways. Substantial government involvement is then legitimized. However, this literature often uses within-sector comparisons of school types, rather than cross-sector comparisons of the education sector with other sectors. This paper compares the structure of education enterprises and workplace practices with those in other industries, namely (the rest of) the public sector and the private sector. Key differences - particularly as regards staffing resources - between education providers and these other enterprises are identified from prior literature and then tested. Data from the UK Workplace Employee Relations Survey (1998) are used. Our findings show substantial differences in labor rewards and factor management in the education sector. The WERS98 has been provided by the Data Archive at Essex University.

This paper relates educational resources in higher education (HE) to labour market earnings for UK graduates. A positive relationship between (various types of) resources deployed and earnings is tested for, using data on UK graduates. Although basic correlations show a positive relationship between per unit resources and student–staff ratios with subsequent earnings, these correlations are significantly reduced when other controlling factors are included. The magnitude of any improvement in earnings from an increase in resources deployed in HE is estimated. The elasticity of earnings with respect to resources is also estimated.

We examine the determinants of establishment performance in the UK, using cross-sectional data from the 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey to replicate research by Fernie and Metcalf (1995) who used data from the 1990 Workplace Employee Relations Survey; specifically, we test whether employee representation, contingent pay and efforts to boost employee participation affect a set of economic and industrial relations outcome indicators in the manner they suggest. We also re-estimate the influential WERS90-based study of Machin and Stewart (1996) on the links between union status and financial performance. In both cases we report very different results.

This paper sets out the benefits and costs of continuing professional development (CPD) for general dental practice. These considerations are important in evaluating CPD yet they are rarely formally assessed. This paper draws on literature specifically on dentistry but also from across the medical profession and the economics of education and training. First, the costs of CPD are itemised with some suggestions as to how costs may be reduced. Second, the benefits are identified and the (limited) evidence on the value of CPD is surveyed. Finally, reasons why some GDPs might not undertake sufficient or appropriate CPD are explored and the need for guidance for dental practitioners is identified.

This note re-iterates McNabb and Whitfield’s (1998) empirical investigation of the relationship between workplace performance and various indicators of employee involvement. McNabb and Whitfield used the 1990 WIRS, whereas our re-estimation is for the 1998 WERS. Our results differ sharply from theirs; in particular, we discern no significant association between downward communication and firm performance, nor do we find that employee share ownership and profit related pay are substitutes. More generally, our findings underscore the difficulty of specifying the relationship between firm performance and employee involvement that is amply reflected in the diversity of findings in the wider literature.

This paper examines the scale and determinants of alumni giving, using datasets from two public-sector, doctoral-granting universities in the UK. The importance of alumni generosity-both as revenue and as a performance measure-is considered, comparing new UK evidence with extant findings on US donor behaviour. Evidence is presented on systematic differences in alumni generosity, based on personal characteristics, solicitation efficiency, and the characteristics and quality of the Higher Education received by graduates. Distinguishing the propensity to give from the scale of giving, there are evident differences by gender, income, by type of campaign and by subject studied.

Using data from two cohorts of graduates, this article examines three aspects of over-education. First, using three new measures, we present an estimate of graduate over-education in the UK. We find that the scale of over-education varies with measurement techniques, with weak correlations between the three measures. Second, across the three measures we estimate the effects of over-education on earnings and job satisfaction. The effects of over-education on earnings and job satisfaction are similar, not withstanding the measures identifying different individuals as being over-educated. One finding is that the effects of being over-educated are more significant for female graduates than male, although it is ambiguous which gender is more prone to over-education. Third, we examine another source of ambiguity regarding over-education, namely that firms upgrade the tasks they allocate to their employees who appear to be over-educated. We find that, for graduates, job quality for the over-educated is not converging to that of the appropriately educated.

Introduction In the context of movement towards mandatory continuing dental education, this paper describes how a delayed postal questionnaire can be used in course evaluation. Specifically, the value of the questionnaire as a tool for assessing the impact of short course attendance on general dental practice is examined. Method Questionnaires were distributed to all those attending three courses, ranging in size, in the West Midlands region. As well as reflecting on the course, respondents were asked their views on the usefulness of the questionnaire, the length of time between course attendance and assessment of impact, and types of courses likely to have greatest impact. Results Respondents thought the questionnaire an appropriate tool for assessing impact on practice, that an appropriate interval of time between the course and the delayed questionnaire is about six weeks, and that courses most likely to impact on practice are those which offer updates on common clinical topics and are hands-on in nature. Discussion A delayed questionnaire could be a useful mechanism for evaluating the impact on practice of some types of courses. Response rates from those attending large lecture courses might be low. Course evaluation is also limited by resources and time. Criteria for identifying which courses should be subject to such evaluation might include high cost per participant and links with review cycles. Conclusion There is scope for more structured evaluation of continuing dental education, including the assessment of impact on practice. The questionnaire described is a useful component of an evaluation framework.

This paper uses a survey of graduates from two cohort years (1985 and 1990) to examine the determinants of overeducation in the UK. We determine whether or not graduates are matched in jobs for whi...

Using a data set on 12,000 UK graduates, weexplore graduates' satisfaction with the contributionthat higher education (HE) has made to their generaldevelopment. Using an ordered logit model, weinvestigate which graduates are the most likely to evaluatefavorably the contribution of their HE. We makeinferences about the relationship between the type of HEand its contribution to general development across a number of facets. Exploiting the historicalcomposition of the data, we also examine the extent towhich these contributory effects of HE to generaldevelopment erode or diminish as the graduates age. This approach permits some critical insightinto whether HE influences development over the courseof one's life.

The extent of non‐retention on post compulsory full‐time education courses mainly undertaken by students in the 16‐19 age group has become recognised as relatively large. Not the least of the concerns surrounding this is the amount of resources devoted to enrolling on courses people who ultimately do not achieve any level of certificated outcome. In this paper we examine the extent of this problem for GCE Advanced Level courses in a number of colleges in the further education funded sector. By focusing on teaching groups we are available to derive a bottom‐up approach to an examination of this resource issue both in absolute terms and implications for internal resource allocation. We identify prior achievements of enrolments as a major factor related to non‐retention on courses. We also address the problem of students dropping out of full‐time post‐school education entirely and conclude that the phenomenon of enrolment loss is directly related to this problem. Reduced portfolios or switching of c...

In this paper, the authors examine the relative labor market gains for first-time college students who enrolled in the North Carolina Community College System in 2002–03. The medium-term returns to diplomas, certificates, and degrees are compared with returns for students who accumulated college credits but did not graduate. The authors also investigate the returns to credit accumulation, subject field, and transfer and the early trajectories of wages for different student subgroups during the 2000s. The analysis is based on student-level administrative record data from college transcripts, Unemployment Insurance wage data, and enrollment and graduation data from the National Student Clearinghouse across 830,000 community college students between 2001 and 2010. Findings from this study confirm those from earlier work: The returns to certificates and diplomas were weak, but associate and bachelor’s degrees yielded very strong returns; even small accumulations of credits had labor market value; and the returns to health sector credentials were extremely high. Returns were much higher for female students than for male students. Despite the Great Recession, analysis reveals little evidence that the returns to college decreased over the latter half of the 2000s. However, medium-term estimates likely understate the full value of college credentials, particularly bachelor’s degrees.

This paper estimates technical efficiency scores across the community college sector in the United States. Using stochastic frontier analysis and data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System for 2003–2010, we estimate efficiency scores for 950 community colleges and perform a series of sensitivity tests to check for robustness. We find that community colleges have become more efficient over time, but no evidence of economies of scale. We also find significant variation in efficiency across colleges, with only part of this variation explained by exogenous differences by state and across student characteristics.

Objective: This study examines the labor market gains for students who enrolled at for-profit colleges after beginning their postsecondary education in community college. Method: We use student-level administrative record data from college transcripts, unemployment insurance earnings data, and progression data from the National Student Clearinghouse across full entry cohorts of community college students in two statewide systems between 2001 and 2006. Using regression analysis and fixed effect methods, we calculate the wage gains to attainment across different student transfer patterns. Results: We find significant wage penalties to transfer to a for-profit college instead of to a public or private nonprofit college. For some student groups, earnings are higher if they drop out of community college instead of transferring to a for-profit college. Conclusion: Students in for-profit colleges do have lower opportunity costs in terms of foregone earnings while enrolled in college. However, these do not sufficiently compensate for lower earnings growth after college.

This paper looks at health outcomes, health behaviors, and health screening with respect to participation in Early Childhood Care and Education. With information on health status at multiple periods in time, we are able to look at whether healthier children select into early childhood education (as measured by center-based preschool care and Head Start), as well as whether early childhood education has immediate and near-term effects on a range of health status measures. There is some evidence that child obesity is ameliorated by participation in center-based preschool or Head Start and this finding is supported by clear evidence of improved nutrition and increased levels of health screening. Effects on other health outcomes such as asthma, ear infections, and respiratory problems may be partially masked by unobserved heterogeneity.

Introduction This paper reports participation of dentists in continuing professional development (CPD) and factors affecting participation. Method All general dental practitioners (GDPs) in three deaneries in England were surveyed. The overall response rate was 54% (n = 2082); by deanery it was 68% West Midlands, 45% South West and 44% Anglia. Findings across deaneries were remarkably similar. Comparisons with national data show no notable bias in the sample for gender, owners/partners and age/experience. Results Most frequent forms of CPD were journal reading and courses in which almost all engaged. A score based on individual participation in CPD over the 12-month period was calculated. The mean score (hours) for participation in verifiable CPD was 31 (median 25) and for general, 29 (median 29). In terms of the GDC's Lifelong Learning Scheme, 57% were already undertaking 50 hours. Net of other effects, those less likely to be doing 50 hours are those with more years in practice and single-handed practitioners. Greater access to courses and media-based CPD is desired. Conclusion Certain groups of dentists will need support to meet the requirements of the GDC's Lifelong Learning Scheme. Statutory peer review or clinical audit will significantly alter the CPD profile of most dentists. This has implications for facilitators.

Continuing professional development (CPD) for healthcare professionals is an important strategic instrument for improving health. The Department of Health identifies CPD as a way of maintaining standards of care; improving the health of the nation; and recruiting, motivating, and retaining high quality staff.1 To this end, direct NHS spending on continuing professional development in 1999-2000 was about £1bn ($1.6bn). 2 3 If we regard CPD as any method to improve health professionals' skills the total resources devoted to it are probably much greater, particularly with the recent increased participation in response to the need for recertification and revalidation.4 To ensure the maximum gain from participation in CPD, these resources must be used efficiently. To assess the efficiency of participating in CPD, economic criteria are needed. Resources for health care are scarce, and money spent on CPD could otherwise be used for direct patient care. These opportunity costs are explicitly considered in the economic methods of cost benefit analysis and cost effectiveness analysis. The literature contains various reviews of cost effectiveness analysis in both health care 5 6 and education.7 Such articles explain why cost effectiveness analysis (or another method of economic evaluation) is essential and how such evaluation should be undertaken, and they clearly define the set of economic terms (such as cost benefit analysis, cost effectiveness analysis, rate of return, and opportunity cost) that need to be incorporated into this type of research. Casebeer et al highlighted the need for economic evaluation of CPD activities,8 but they emphasised the use of cost benefit analysis, which requires monetary values to be assigned to measures of effectiveness. Cost benefit analysis is generally used to ascertain whether an intervention should be undertaken. Cost effectiveness analysis is used to decide which interventions (out of a number of alternatives) should …

The purpose of this paper is to discuss how the role of peer review and clinical audit may be used in the identification of the continuing professional development (CPD) needs of general dental practitioners (GDPs). Clinical audit and peer review are intrinsically valuable in terms of the continued professional development of GDPs. Collaborative clinical audit, in particular, can provide a framework for short course input and there are particular benefits to this combination of activities which might usefully be more widely encouraged. If open to analysis in a way which retains individual anonymity, peer review and clinical audit resumes, these could be used to inform the provision of CPD and, linked to the knowledge of audit facilitators, short courses might more closely match the CPD needs of local dentists.

There has been much scrutiny recently of the choice to breast-feed rather than formula-feed an infant, yet key identification issues remain to be resolved. This study uses the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey--Birth Cohort to explore the causal effect of breast feeding on child development. Using simultaneous equations models and propensity score measures and adjusting for confounding factors, we examine health, physical, and cognitive outcomes and relate these to a set of breast feeding and formula feeding intensities measures. Our results indicate that breast feeding is protective against obesity and improves cognitive outcomes at 24 months and 54 months. Furthermore, not being formula-fed at birth is associated with higher motor scores.

This trial to assess a new model of postnatal care has been funded by the NHS Research and Development, Health Technology Assessment Programme. The authors, who are also the trial management team, represent a range of disciplines relevant to the evaluation of postpartum care.

This article reports on the differences in democratic education across school types, using the US National Household Education Survey (NHES) of 1999. We replicate the estimation approach of Campbell (1998) and find a strongly positive effect from attendance at Catholic school or private independent schools on community service participation, civic skills, civic confidence, political knowledge and political tolerance. The results are reasonably robust to alternative specifications. We consider the implications of these results for policy.