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This study was conducted to assess the cardiopulmonary and anesthetic effects of sevoflurane anesthesia on Garnett's Greater Bush Baby (Otolemur garnettii). Anesthesia was induced via face mask in 10 animals, six male and four female, ranging in age from 2 to 8 years (mean weight 1.02 kg), with 8% sevoflurane in oxygen at 2 L minute−1. Animals were then intubated and maintained on a nonrebreathing system at 2.5% end tidal sevoflurane at 2 L minute−1 oxygen for 30 minutes. Induction (time to recumbency and lack of voluntary movement) and recovery time (time from discontinuation of sevoflurane to extubation) were recorded. Heart rate, respiratory rate (RR), end-tidal CO2 concentration (ETCO2), temperature (T) and oxygen retardation by pulse oximetry (SpO2) were monitored every minute for 5 minutes and then every 5 minutes thereafter. Indirect arterial blood pressures were monitored at 4 and 5 minutes and then every 5 minutes until the end of the study. PaO2 and PaCO2 values were recorded at 10 and 30 minutes. Pre (1 week prior) and post study CBC and serum biochemistry results were also compared. Statistical analysis was determined by anova. Results were considered significant at p ≤ 0.05. Induction was rapid (76 ± 9 seconds) (mean ± SEM) and smooth. Heart rate showed a significant increase during the first three minutes, and then significantly decreased over the remaining 30 minutes. There were no significant changes to RR, SpO2, ETCO2, SAP, MAP and DAP during the 30 minutes of anesthesia. PaO2 significantly increased from the 10 minute (326 ± 51 mm Hg, 43.4 ± 6.8 kPa) to the 30 minute (431 ± 48 mm Hg, 57.5 ± 6.4 kPa) sample and PaCO2 values remained similar between the 10 minute (36 ± 2 mm Hg, 4.8 ± 0.3 kPa) and 30 minute (33 ± 2 mm Hg, 4.4 ± 0.3 kPa) samples. CBC and serum biochemistry results were within normal limits for both samplings, however, a significant decrease was noted in the WBC count, Ca, and TP compared to prestudy results. Recovery was smooth and rapid with extubation occurring at 24 ± 6 seconds after discontinuation of sevoflurane. At the concentration used in this study sevoflurane appears to be a safe and effective agent for induction and maintenance of anesthesia in O. garnettii.

The sedative effects of intranasal midazolam and dexmedetomidine were evaluated in 2 tortoise species as a means to facilitate handling and performing diagnostic procedures. Six red-footed tortoises ( Chelonoidis carbonaria ) and 6 Indian star tortoises ( Geochelone platynota ) received the following treatments in a randomized order with 2-week washout periods between the treatments: midazolam (0.5 and 1.5mg/kg), dexmedetomidine (0.05 and 0.15mg/kg), and saline control. Tortoises were evaluated and scored for sedation (using a previously published subjective method) by blinded observers, and results were averaged for each species and treatment group. Low-dose dexmedetomidine (0.05mg/kg) in red-footed tortoises resulted in a significantly higher median sedation score at 5 minutes compared with other treatments. Control saline resulted in a higher median sedation score 5 minutes after administration in Indian star tortoises compared with red-footed tortoises. No other significant differences were observed between treatments or between species. The results suggest that intranasal administration of midazolam or dexmedetomidine, at the dosages used in this study, do not provide effective sedation in red-footed tortoises or Indian star tortoises, based on a subjective scoring system.

Objective—To evaluate first-intention healing of CO2 laser, 4.0-MHz radiowave radiosurgery (RWRS), and scalpel incisions in ball pythons (Python regius). Animals—6 healthy adult ball pythons. Procedures—A skin biopsy sample was collected, and 2-cm skin incisions (4/modality) were made in each snake under anesthesia and closed with surgical staples on day 0. Incision sites were grossly evaluated and scored daily. One skin biopsy sample per incision type per snake was obtained on days 2, 7, 14, and 30. Necrotic and fibroplastic tissue was measured in histologic sections; samples were assessed and scored for total inflammation, histologic response (based on the measurement of necrotic and fibroplastic tissues and total inflammation score), and other variables. Frequency distributions of gross and histologic variables associated with wound healing were calculated. Results—Gross wound scores were significantly greater (indicating greater separation of wound edges) for laser incisions than for RWRS and scalpel incisions at all evaluated time points. Necrosis was significantly greater in laser and RWRS incisions than in scalpel incision sites on days 2 and 14 and days 2 and 7, respectively; fibroplasia was significantly greater in laser than in scalpel incision sites on day 30. Histologic response scores were significantly lower for scalpel than for other incision modalities on days 2, 14, and 30. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—In snakes, skin incisions made with a scalpel generally had less necrotic tissue than did CO2 laser and RWRS incisions. Comparison of the 3 modalities on the basis of histologic response scores indicated that use of a scalpel was preferable, followed by RWRS and then laser.

An 8-yr-old intact female African lion (Panthera leo) presented with a 3-day history of lethargy, anorexia, and vomiting. Hematologic and biochemical abnormalities included a leukocytosis, 41,700/microl (4,700-15,300) with a neutrophilia (37,530/microl; 2,000-9,200) and a left shift (1,250/microl bands; 0-300), and mild hypokalemia of 2.1 mEq/L (2.8-4.8). Abdominal radiographs revealed evidence of intestinal ileus, peritonitis, and the presence of effusion. An exploratory laparotomy was performed, and septic peritonitis due to a pyometra was diagnosed. The lion was treated with an ovariohysterectomy, abdominal lavage, fluid therapy, and a subcutaneous injection of cefovecin. The lion recovered, and clinical signs associated with septic peritonitis resolved within 36 hr. It was returned to conspecifics 3 wk later. Three months postoperatively, the lion showed no residual signs of septic peritonitis.

A 13-mo-old intact male African lion (Panthera leo) presented with a 3-mo history of lethargy, ventral flexion of the neck, abnormal vocalization, and ataxia. Hemogram and serum biochemistries were within normal limits except for the presence of hypokalemia (2.7 mEq/L) and hypochloridemia (108 mEq/L). When no improvement was noted with oral potassium gluconate supplementation, a computed tomography scan of the brain and skull was performed, and no abnormalities were noted. However, magnetic resonance imaging detected occipital bone thickening, crowding of the caudal cranial fossa with cerebellar compression and herniation, and cervical syringohydromyelia, which was consistent with a Chiari I-like malformation. Foramen magnum decompression was performed to relieve the compression of the cerebellum. The animal recovered well with subsequent resolution of clinical signs. Hypovitaminosis A has been proposed previously as the underlying etiology for this malformation in lions with similar clinical presentations. This lion's serum and liver vitamin A concentrations were low (100 ng/ml and 25.31 microg/g, respectively) compared to concentrations reported for domestic carnivores and support hypovitaminosis A as the underlying cause of this animal's Chiari I-like malformation.

Anesthetic and cardiopulmonary effects of butorphanol administered pre- versus postoperatively were determined and compared in 11 adult Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis) anesthetized with sevoflurane and subjected to coelomic endoscopy for gonadal evaluation. Birds were randomly assigned to receive butorphanol tartrate (2 mg/kg IM) either 20 minutes before induction of anesthesia with sevoflurane (B-S group) or immediately after sevoflurane anesthesia (S group). No differences in induction or recovery times were seen between groups. Heart rates of birds in the B-S group were significantly higher at 30 minutes compared with baseline and with heart rates of birds in the S group. Birds in the S group had significantly lower heart rates at both 15 and 25 minutes compared with baseline values. Respiratory rates throughout the study were significantly lower in both groups compared with baseline values. Birds in the B-S group had significantly lower respiratory rates at baseline and after 1...

Pain management in reptiles is poorly understood and most published reptile opioid doses are empirically derived. In this study, five adult (3 male, 2 female) green iguanas, Iguana iguana, were given either 0.5 ml saline or an opioid analgesic agent intramuscularly 30 min prior to electrostimulation of the tail to compare responses. Opioid analgesic agents evaluated were butorphanol at 0.4, 1.5, 4.0 and 8.0 mg/kg, buprenorphine at 0.02 and 0.1 mg/kg, and morphine at 0.4 and 1.0 mg/kg. Electrostimulation was administered with a Grass stimulator® with the two electrodes placed 1 cm apart at the measured junction of the first and second thirds of the tail, randomly delivering currents of 2, 10, 20 and 40 mA for a duration of 500 mS, 10 min apart. The iguanas' responses were recorded on videotape so three evaluators, blinded to the agent given, could determine a score (0–20) based on a response scale developed for this study. Increasing scores correlated with increases in heart rate, and movement of ...

In a prospective study, eight (four males and four females) healthy, adult captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) were immobilized with a combination of tiletamine-zolazepam (4 mg/kg, i.m.), administered with a remote drug delivery system, to define normal cardiac morphology and function. Standard lateral and ventrodorsal (VD) radiographs were then taken to measure heart and thorax using a metric and vertebral scale system. Standard six-lead electrocardiograms were obtained with the animals in right lateral recumbency under isoflurane anesthesia. Mean chest depth and width was 18.7 +/- 1.3 cm and 13.0 +/- 0.6 cm, respectively. The mean lateral cardiac short axis (X) was 9.1 +/- 0.6 cm. the mean cardiac long axis (Y) was 13.6 +/- 0.7 cm, and the mean lateral heart sum (X + Y) was 22.6 +/- 1.2 cm. In the VD projection, mean cardiac short axis (V) was 10.1 +/- 0.7 cm, mean cardiac long axis (W) was 14.9 +/- 1.2 cm, and the heart sum (V + W) was 24.9 +/- 1.8 cm. The vertebral heart size was 8.2 +/- 0.9. All cheetahs had sinus rhythm, and no arrhythmias were noted. Mean heart rate was 126 +/- 15 beats/min, and the mean electrical axis was 82 + 5 degrees. P waves were always positive on lead II and had a width of 0.04 +/- 0.01 sec and a height between 0.1 and 0.3 mV. PR intervals were 0.11 +/- 0.01 sec. The height of the QRS complex was 1.25 +/- 0.24 mV and the width 0.06 +/- 0.01 sec. The ST segment was 0.04 sec, and the T wave (height: 0.25 +/- 0.05 mV) was positive in all cheetahs examined. Although these cardiac and thoracic measurements were larger than those of domestic cats (Felis catus), ratios of cardiac parameters were similar in both species. Electrocardiographic findings were similar to those reported from domestic cats.

The cardiopulmonary and anesthetic effects of isoflurane and propofol were determined in 10 healthy, adult Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). Anesthesia was induced and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen for 30 minutes. Cardiopulmonary parameters including heart rate, respiratory rate, relative arterial oxygen hemoglobin saturation (SpO2), and esophageal temperature were recorded at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes. End-tidal CO2 (EtCO2) concentrations and inspired and expired end-tidal isoflurane concentrations were recorded continuously. Before the study continued, birds were allowed to recover from isoflurane anesthesia for at least 2 hours. In a second trial, anesthesia was induced by intravenous administration of propofol (5 mg/kg) and maintained for 30 minutes by constant rate infusion of propofol (1 mg/kg per min IV). No supplemental oxygen was provided. Cardiopulmonary parameters and EtCO2 concentrations were recorded as in the isoflurane trial. Induction times...

Radiography and ultrasonography are important imaging tools for the morphologic and functional evaluation of internal organs and the diagnosis of reptilian diseases. The unique anatomy and architecture of the coelomic cavity and reptilian organs such as the respiratory tract will result in variations from the normal radiographic images seen in domestic animals and avian species. Radiography is the most commonly used imaging technique in reptiles to assess the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, and skeletal system. Specific metabolic disorders (eg, metabolic bone disease in lizards and chelonians) as well as infectious disease processes can also be diagnosed using radiographic techniques. Advanced imaging techniques, such as contrast radiography, scintigraphy, and ultrasonography, are commonly used but may present some unique challenges in reptiles because of their anatomy and pathophysiology of diseases. Pathologic changes can only be recognized and diagnosed with a good understanding and knowledge of reptile anatomy and pathophysiology. Normal radiographic appearance of reptiles and the application of advanced radiography, including nuclear imaging and ultrasonographic techniques, will be presented.

The sedative effects of medetomidine administered alone or in combination with ketamine or midazolam were evaluated in 20 adult pigeons (Columba livia). Six to 12 pigeons were randomly assigned to each of 5 treatment groups. Medetomidine administered alone (80, 150, or 200 μg/kg IM) caused effects ranging from ataxia to sternal recumbency, but the righting reflex was always retained. The level of sedation resulting from medetomidine (80 μg/kg IM) in combination with either ketamine (5 mg/kg IM) or midazolam (0.5 mg/kg IM) was variable; birds exhibited signs ranging from mild to heavy sedation. Heavy sedation was defined as loss of the righting reflex and profound muscle relaxation. Medetomidine-ketamine resulted in heavy sedation in 3 of 9 birds, whereas 5 of 12 birds were heavily sedated with medetomidine-midazolam. Atipamizole (0.5 mg/kg IM) was administered to reverse the effects of medetomidine. The length of time (mean ± SD) from atipamizole injection until loss of ataxia and return of full ...

A 10-yr-old, female, boa constrictor, Boa constrictor ortoni, with a malignant subcutaneous fibrosarcoma of the body wall was treated with surgery and adjunctive radiation therapy. A total...

Seven (three male and four female) 4-7-yr old captive servals (Felis serval) weighing 13.7 +/- 2.3 kg were used to evaluate the cardiopulmonary and anesthetic effects of combined intramuscular injections of medetomidine (47.4 +/- 10.3 microg/kg), ketamine (1.0 +/- 0.2 mg/kg), and butorphanol (0.2 +/- 0.03 mg/kg). Inductions were smooth and rapid (11.7 +/- 4.3 min) and resulted in good muscle relaxation. Significant decreases in heart rate (85 +/- 12 beats/min) at 10 min after injection and respiratory rate (27 +/- 10 breaths/min) at 5 min after injection continued throughout the immobilization period. Rectal temperature and arterial blood pressure did not change significantly. The PaO2 decreased significantly, and PaCO2 increased significantly during immobilization but remained within clinically acceptable limits. Hypoxemia (PaO2 < 60 mm Hg) was not noted, and arterial blood oxygen saturation (SaO2) was greater than 90% at all times. Relative arterial oxygen saturation (SpO2) values, indicated by pulse oximetry, were lower than SaO2 values. All animals could be safely handled while sedated. Administration of atipamezole (236.8 +/- 51.2 microg/kg half i.v. and half s.c.), an alpha2 antagonist, resulted in rapid (4.1 +/- 3 min to standing) and smooth recoveries.

Eight captive ostriches (Struthio camelus), ranging in age from 9 to 11 months, were given a combination of medetomidine and ketamine, administered intramuscularly, and propofol, administered intravenously, for induction and maintenance of anesthesia. Medetomidine (80 μg/kg IM) and ketamine (2 mg/kg IM) resulted in profound sedation and sternal recumbency within a mean time of 14.6 ± 10.0 minutes in 6 birds. Two birds remained standing but were moderately sedated. Propofol, used for induction (3 mg/kg IV) and maintenance (0.2 mg/kg/min constant rate infusion) of anesthesia, enabled intubation and provided muscle relaxation sufficient for restraint lasting 30 minutes. Apnea was observed after propofol administration, but spontaneous ventilation resumed within 60 to 90 seconds. All birds were bradycardic throughout the anesthetic event. Both the heart rate and the cloacal body temperature decreased significantly at 25 and 30 minutes, respectively, after induction. By 5 minutes after induction, the ...

A 13-yr-old intact male African lion (Panthera leo) presented with a 4-mo history of left maxillary lip swelling. On physical examination, a 10-cm-diameter, ulcerated, round, firm, and pigmented mass at the level of the left maxillary canine tooth was noticed. All other organ systems examined were within normal limits. Multiple biopsies of the mass were collected and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin. Histopathologic evaluation of the biopsies revealed a malignant dermal melanoma. Hematologic and plasma biochemical parameters were within normal reference ranges. Thoracic radiographs taken 3 days following initial presentation showed no evidence of metastasis of the tumor. Computed tomography of the skull and neck was performed to evaluate local tumor invasion and to plan for hypofractionated radiation therapy. Therapy included four weekly treatments of 8 gray external-beam hypofractionated radiation and four bimonthly immunotherapy treatments. Following this treatment regime, the tumor size was reduced by 50%, and surgical excision was performed. No major side effects associated with radiation or immunotherapy were seen. Six months after diagnosis, hematologic and plasma biochemical parameters were within normal limits, thoracic radiographs showed no evidence of metastasis, and the lion showed no clinical signs of disease. The lion will continue to receive immunotherapy every 6 mo for the rest of its life. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of a successful treatment of a malignant dermal melanoma with external-beam hypofractionated radiation, immunotherapy, and surgical excision in an African lion.

A 15-year-old male North American cougar (Felis concolor) presented with a 2-day history of anorexia, restlessness, and dyspnea. White blood cell count ( cells/μL) and absolute segmented neutrophil count ( cells/μL) were increased, and BUN (143 mg/dL), creatinine (6.3 mg/dL), and phosphorus (8.5 mg/dL) concentrations indicated chronic renal disease. Thoracic radiographs showed severe pleural and pericardial effusion. During attempts to remove the fluid, cardiac tamponade developed and the cat died. At necropsy, nodular masses decorated the pericardium at the level of the base of the heart. The final microscopic diagnosis was mesothelioma of the pericardium, tunica adventitia of the main pulmonary artery, left auricle epicardium, and left ventricular epicardium. A 15-year-old female cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) was evaluated for acute respiratory distress. The white blood cell count ( cells/μL) and absolute segmented neutrophil count ( cells/μL) were increased. Radiographically pleural effusion and a cranial thoracic mass were seen. The cheetah was euthanized, and a gross diagnosis of disseminated pleural mesothelioma with thoracic effusion was made. Histologically, pleural mesothelioma was confirmed with local invasion of the lung and pulmonary arterial emboli and infarction. In both cases, a diagnosis of mesothelioma was made based on cellular morphology, microscopic architecture, and neoplastic cell coexpression of cytokeratin and vimentin.

Objective—To evaluate the use of computed tomography (CT) for detection of pneumonia in snakes. Animals—8 clinically normal Indian pythons (Python molurus) and 5 pythons with evidence of respiratory tract disease. Procedures—Preliminary examinations (clinical examination, conventional radiography, and microbiologic examination of a transtracheal wash sample) were performed. The lungs of each snake were then examined by use of CT performed in accordance with a standardized protocol. Structures of the lungs were assessed, and thickness and attenuation of the parenchyma were determined. Results—It was possible to assess lung parenchyma in all pythons. Mean ± SD attenuation in healthy pythons was −744.4 ± 47.1 Hounsfield units. Significant differences were not evident between the right and left lungs or among measurement areas within a lung. In all Indian pythons with clinical signs of dyspnea and microbiologic detection of pathogens, hyperattenuation of the alveolar tissue was evident. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance—Analysis of the results revealed the benefit of CT for use in the diagnosis of pneumonia in snakes. A standardized protocol and reference values were established as a basis for CT assessment of the lungs of snakes.

The anesthetic and cardiopulmonary effects of butorphanol followed by sevoflurane or isoflurane were compared in 23 male green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Heart and respiratory rates were recorded before administration of butorphanol (2 mg/kg i.m.) and at 30 min after premedication. Anesthesia was induced in 12 iguanas (group 1) with isoflurane (5%) and in 11 iguanas (group 2) with sevoflurane (7%). Heart rate, relative arterial oxygen hemoglobin saturation (SpO2), and end-tidal CO2 concentrations (EtCO2) were measured every minute for the first 5 min and every 5 min thereafter. Arterial blood gas parameters were determined at 10 and 40 min after induction. Thirty minutes after butorphanol administration, no significant changes in heart and respiratory rate were seen as compared with baseline values. Quality and time to induction were superior with butorphanol-sevoflurane (6 +/- 3 min) than with butorphanol-isoflurane (9 +/- 4 min). Vaporizer settings during maintenance ranged between 1-3% and 2-4%, respectively. No significant differences in heart rate were noted between groups. In the sevoflurane group, SpO2 values were90% throughout. Although SpO2, values were90% at 20, 25, and 30 min in the isoflurane group, no significant differences in SpO2 values were seen over time and between groups. A significant decrease in EtCO2 with time was present in both groups, with no significant differences between the groups. At 10 and 40 min, arterial blood oxygen saturation values were90% in both groups and no significant differences were noted with time and between groups. Recovery time was significantly longer in the butorphanol-isoflurane group (35 +/- 27 min) than in the butorphanol-sevoflurane group (7 +/- 4 min). The cardiopulmonary effects of butorphanol-isoflurane and butorphanol-sevoflurane assessed in this study are similar, and both inhalants appear to be safe and effective for induction and maintenance in the green iguana.

Using a crossover design, the effects of the addition of ketamine to a previously determined optimal hand-injected immobilization dosage of carfentanil/xylazine were evaluated in 11 adult white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Two i.m. ketamine dosages were evaluated: 0.15 mg/kg (low ketamine) and 0.30 mg/kg (high ketamine). Each deer was immobilized twice 2 wk apart. Inductions were video recorded and reviewed by observers, who had been blinded to drugs and dosages, who rated qualitative aspects. There were significant (P0.05) dosage-dependent decreases in heart rate, SaO2, and arterial pH, and a significant dosage-dependent increase in PaCO2. Induction times with both dosages were more rapid (mean 2.3 +/- 0.9 min for low ketamine and 2.3 +/- 0.6 min for high ketamine) than those reported for the same carfentanil/xylazine dosage used without ketamine. Mean quality ratings, though improved compared to those reported for carfentanil/xylazine alone, were considered "undesirable" for both dosages. Hyperthermia (temperature41 degrees C) was noted in 13 of 22 immobilizations. Arterial pH and PaO2 increased significantly from 10 to 20 min postrecumbency, but acidemia (pH7.3) was present throughout immobilization periods for all deer. There were ketamine dosage-dependent increases in respiratory components of this acidemia compared with that associated with carfentanil/xylazine alone. Possible hypoxemia was present at both sampling times for both groups, while hypercapnea (PaCO260 mm Hg) was present for the high-ketamine group only. Reversal times for naltrexone and yohimbine were rapid (mean 2.9 +/- 0.7 min for low ketamine and 3.3 +/- 0.8 min for high ketamine), with no evidence of renarcotization. Although the addition of ketamine to carfentanil/xylazine caused faster inductions and improved induction qualities, it also produced an increased incidence of hyperthermia, acidemia, hypoxemia, and hypercapnea. Supplemental oxygen and close monitoring of body temperature is recommended when using this immobilization regimen.

The efficacy of three radiopharmaceuticals, 99mTc-diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (99mTc-DTPA), 99mTc-dimercaptosuccinic acid (99mTc-DMSA), and 99mTc-mercaptoacetyltriglycine (99mTc-MAG3), for renal imaging was examined in 16 corn snakes (Elaphe guttata guttata). All snakes received the radiopharmaceutical via an intracardiac injection. The kidneys could not be visualized in the three snakes that received 99mTc-DTPA or in the three snakes that received 99mTc-DMSA, but were well delineated in all 10 snakes receiving 99mTc-MAG3. These snakes were anesthetized and a dynamic frame mode acquisition was obtained for 30 min immediately following injection. A 60 s single static frame mode image was then obtained with the snake in a curled position. Two of the 10 snakes that received 99mTc-MAG3 were removed from further analysis because of suspected pericardial injections. Of the remaining eight snakes, the mean (+/- SD) renal uptake was 25 +/- 9.8% or 24 +/- 9.7%, with or without correction for residual injection site activity, respectively. Correction for remaining radioactivity in the heart does not appear to be necessary if it is less than 10% of the total dose. 99mTc-MAG3 provided consistently high quality images of the kidneys and further studies are warranted to evaluate its sensitivity for detecting decreased function in snakes with renal disease.

A 178-kg, 14-yr-old captive female American black bear (Ursus americanus) was examined because of lethargy, inappetance, obesity, and alopecia. Serum chemistry and complete blood count values were within normal limits. Based on serum levels for total thyroxine (T4), free T4 by equilibrium dialysis (fT4ED), and canine thyroid-stimulating hormone concentrations, using assays validated for domestic dogs, hypothyroidism was diagnosed presumptively, and therapy with levothyroxine sodium (0.022 mg/kg p.o. b.i.d.) was initiated. Haircoat, body weight, appetite, and activity level improved within 30 days. The levothyroxine dose was decreased twice (to 0.018 mg/kg p.o. b.i.d. and then to 0.011 mg/kg p.o. b.i.d.) during the course of treatment based on monitoring of serum T4 and fT4ED concentrations. After euthanasia for severe refractory lameness, postmortem examination revealed bilateral thyroid lobe enlargement and a fluid-filled cyst within the right lobe. Histologically, colloid goiter was present in both lobes, and a follicular cystadenoma had replaced one third of the cranial pole of the right lobe. The goiter and cystadenoma likely contributed to the hypothyroid condition in this bear and fT4ED was a more sensitive indicator of hypothyroidism than was T4. The recommended canine dosage of levothyroxine may be too high for the treatment of hypothyroidism in American black bears; 0.011 mg/kg p.o. b.i.d. may be a more appropriate dosage.

head tilt to the left. Cerebrospinal fluid and electromyogram were within normal limits. At necropsy, the osseous tentorium cerebelli was markedly thickened with a central 4- 3 3.5- 3 3-cm irregular hard knob continuous with the markedly thickened occipital bone. The protuberance was located between the posterior aspect of the cerebrum and the cerebellum and compressed the cerebellum and reduced the size of the cerebellar fossa. There was mild dorso-ventral flattening of the cerebral hemispheres. The ventral third of the cerebellar vermis was flattened, with a lip-like projection extruding from the vermis and resting on the medulla (Fig. 1). The fourth ventricle and medulla were elongated and extended beyond the foramen magnum. Lion 2 was a weak, month-old female cub that had poor weight gain and developed a head tilt at 3 weeks of age. Skull radiographs, retinal examination, and otic examinations were conducted at VMTH and were found to be within normal limits. The cub died, and at necropsy, removal of the tentorium cerebelli was difficult. Gross changes at necropsy were similar to those of lion 1. Lions 3, 4, and 5 were littermates with neurologic signs consisting of progressive ataxia, head tilt, and loss of orientation of variable severity. Toxoplasma, FIV, and FeLV tests were negative, and CBC and serum chemistry were within normal limits. The cubs were euthanized and necropsies were performed at the VMTH. Similar lesions were present in the 3 cubs, with a thick, nodular osseous tentorium cerebelli (Fig. 2) and reduction in posterior fossae with dorso-ventral compression of the cerebellum. A portion of the caudal cerebellar vermis was markedly flattened, with a peglike projection that extended beyond the foramen magnum (Fig. 3). In addition, cubs 4 and 5 had elongation of the fourth ventricle and displacement of the choroid plexus. Sagittal section of the cerebral hemispheres revealed mildly dilated lateral ventricles. Archival reports from the VMTH revealed 3 other lions, lions 6, 7, and 8 from the same collection, that showed neurologic signs. These lions were euthanized and necropsied by the referring veterinarian, and tissues were submitted to the VMTH. No gross lesions were noted. Lion 6 was a 1.2year-old female that had recurring problems with orientation, rolling with its head up, bellowing, and progressive difficulties in swallowing and defecating. Keepers noted that the lioness had never behaved completely normally since birth. Lion 7 was a 1.2-year-old male with incoordination and opisthotonus for approximately 2‐3 months. Skull radiographs, serum chemistries, and CBC were within normal limits. Lion 8 was a 1.5-year-old female with recurring equilibrium problems, and often the animal would lose its balance when it became excited and would run blindly into objects and fall. The brains and spinal cords of all the lions except lion 8 were examined in detail. Histologic lesions of the central

Fungal infections affecting the integumentary system, the upper and lower respiratory system and the gastro-intestinal tract have been reported in many species of captive reptiles. Systemic mycoses are diagnosed rarely in reptiles, and in most cases, they are a postmortem finding. Commonly, immunocompromised reptiles, kept in suboptimal environmental conditions are affected. In many cases, mixed bacterial and fungal infections of opportunistic organisms may be present. A diagnosis of a primary fungal infection is based on proper selection and collection of diagnostic specimens such as biopsies of infected tissues. Treatment of fungal infections in reptiles includes administration of effective antifungal agents and correction of inappropriate environmental conditions such as poor hygiene, too high or too low temperature and humidity, inadequate diet, and stress from overcrowding. Few studies have investigated effective dosages and dosage intervals of antifungal agents in reptiles.

Percutaneous ultrasound-guided liver biopsies were conducted in 15 snakes using 18-gauge automatic biopsy devices. The liver samples collected ranged in size from 1.16 ± 0.40 mm to 8.3 ± 0.55 mm. Upon histologic examination, all biopsy samples were of diagnostic quality. Anesthesia with complete immobilization of the snake was necessary to allow proper selection of the target site and limit complications associated with biopsy collection. Percutaneous ultrasound-guided liver biopsy is a rapid, minimally invasive method for collecting liver tissue in snakes.

Ostrich production facilities expanded exponentially in the United States, leading to crowded conditions and new disease states that required close examination and, occasionally, surgical intervention. Manual restraint was usually inadequate and often dangerous to both the ostrich and the handler, and necessitated chemical immobilization. Few repeatable anesthetic techniques have been established for ostriches. This report describes a predictable general anesthetic technique for ostriches. Seven adult, domesticated ostriches (three male; four female), estimated to weigh 99.2 ± 6.2 kg (mean ± SEM) were hand injected with 0.2 mg kg−1 midazolam and 0.4 mg kg−1 butorphanol IM in the mid-dorsum. Sedative effects were evident and anesthesia was induced 34.13 ± 1.88 minutes after sedation with ketamine (8.69 ± 0.51 mg kg−1 IV in the right jugular vein), followed by intubation and isoflurane anesthesia under controlled ventilation (PaCO2 35–45 mm Hg, 4.7–6 kPa) for surgery (proventriculotomy, n = 6; neck laceration, n = 1). The laceration subject required a second anesthesia one month later. Temperature, ECG, pulse oximetry, blood gases, exhaled gases and arterial blood pressures were monitored and supported. To assess inhalant anesthetic requirement a simple step-down, step-up method (10–20% change) was applied, maintaining a given end-tidal isoflurane (ETISO) concentration for a minimum of 15 minutes during surgical stimulation and observing gross purposeful head movement. Movement was noted at ETiso 1.69 ± 0.11% at the first step-down approach (n = 8), 1.66 ± 0.09% (n = 5) at the second and 1.78 ± 0.06 (n = 4) at the third. Body temperature at instrumentation was 37.2 ± 0.3 °C and dropped to 35.8 ± 0.5 °C by the end of the procedure. Time from induction to start of the step-down analysis was 80.9 ± 20.0 minutes with a total anesthesia time of 268.3 ± 37.4 minutes. In recovery ETISO for head movement was 0.48 ± 0.06%. This movement was followed immediately by 5 mg butorphanol IV, and provided 14.4 ± 2.3 minutes before the next head movement. The second movement was followed immediately by naloxone (0.01 mg kg−1 IV) and minimal delirium in recovery. A relatively controlled, repeatable method for anesthesia of domesticated ostriches was established.

We determined the effects of ketamine HCI on cardiopulmonary function in 10 grey ratsnakes (Elaphe obsoleta), weighing 320 ? 150 g (mean ? SD). To establish normal values of cardiovascular response, we measured arterial blood pressure, carotid arterial blood flow, heart rates, breathing rates, and arterial blood gases in conscious snakes positioned both horizontally and in a 45* head-up tilt. Then we measured the same variables following intravascular administration of ketamine HCI (41 ? 6 mg/kg). Administration of ketamine produced significant tachycardia, hypertension, and decreases in breathing rates which were reflected in modest changes of arterial pH and respiratory gas pressures. Arterial oxygen saturation, however, exceeded 95% in both conscious and anesthetized snakes. Administration of ketamine produced nearly twofold increases in systolic, diastolic, mean, and pulse systemic arterial pressures of resting snakes in horizontal position. In response to head-up tilt, central arterial pressures decreased in anesthetized snakes but did not fall below levels that were regulated by reflexogenic increases in conscious snakes. Thus, administration of ketamine HCI to snakes produced significant hypertension but did not seriously compromise cardiovascular performance in response to gravitational stress.

The growth of derivatives markets combined with the rising complexity of the issued products and stricter regulatory requirements are leading to an increased demand for compute power. At the same time, derivatives valuation systems and many other financial applications are forced to support shorter financial products life-cycles, real-time valuation and risk management in a cost effective, secure and scalable way. We have developed a simulation based derivatives valuation toolkit for the parallel valuation of multi-dimensional European-, Bermudianand Americanstyle options which can be easily extended with new product functions. This application has been deployed as a valuation service within the GEMSS grid infrastructure, enabling the secure invocation from a Microsoft Excel client of distinct derivatives valuation services of internal or external service providers. The experiences made with this prototype are used in the NextGRID project for the definition of requirements for next generation Grid architectures adapted to business application needs and the construction of revised Grid enabled applications for derivatives valuation and robust portfolio optimization.

A 19-yr-old binturong (Arctictis binturong) with acute upper respiratory disease was euthanized. Postmortem findings included hepatocellular carcinoma, pancreatic islet cell carcinoma, and renal adenocarcinoma with metastasis to the spleen, pleura, and pericardium. A link between primary hepatic and renal neoplasms has been noted in older humans.

A 10-day-old female southern white rhinoceros calf (Ceratotherium simum simum) was diagnosed with a patent urachus after urine was observed dribbling from the umbilicus. After being separated from its mother, the animal was sedated with i.m. butorphanol and anesthetized with isoflurane in oxygen for surgical correction of the patent urachus. Mild postoperative complications involved seroma formation and partial skin incision dehiscence, which necessitated three follow-up immobilizations for reevaluation and treatment of the surgical site. Histopathology did not reveal an infectious etiology as the cause for the complications or for the patent urachus. The etiology of the patent urachus in this animal remains undetermined. This report represents the first documented case of a patent urachus in a white rhinoceros.