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A comprehensive comparison of the dominant sources of radiation-induced blur for radiographic imaging system performance is made. End-point energies of 6, 10, 15, and 20 MeV bremsstrahlung photon radiation produced at the Los Alamos National Laboratory Microtron facility were used to examine the performance of large-panel cerium-doped lutetium yttrium silicon oxide (LYSO:Ce) scintillators 3, 5 and 10 mm thick. The system resolution was measured and compared between the various end-point energies and scintillator thicknesses. Contrary to expectations, it is found that there was only a minor dependence of system resolution on scintillator thickness or beam end-point energy. This indicates that increased scintillator thickness does not have a dramatic effect on system performance. The data are then compared to Geant4 simulations to assess contributions to the system performance through the examination of modulation transfer functions. It was determined that the low-frequency response of the system is dominated by the radiation-induced signal, while the higher-frequency response of the system is dominated by the optical imaging of the scintillation emission.

Among the most dominant factors in x-ray radiographic image resolution is the radiographic spot size, which is primarily a function of the physical extent of the x-ray source, so the most marked improvements in image resolution come from modifying the pulse power driver's diode configuration to reduce that extent. The smaller the size of the x-ray spot, the higher the image resolution potential. The U.S. Naval Research Laboratory's Mercury pulsed power accelerator has been configured with a rod- pinch diode, and recent measurements were conducted to demonstrate the impact of anode rod geometry on x-ray spot size. The “standard” anode rod is a 0.75 mm diameter cylinder that is tapered down to 0.25 mm over a length of 5 mm, and, in this study, it was replaced by rods with a sharp step between their two diameters, rather than a taper. The effect on spot size was assessed by analyzing the edge and line spread functions calculated from high-mag rolled edge and pinhole camera images. For certain diameter pairs, a reduction in radiographic spot size is observed. In addition, the dual-diameter rods have provided unique insight into the electron-anode coupling dynamics that are at play in all diodes of this type.

An experimental campaign was recently completed at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory’s Mercury pulsed-power facility, where the feasibility of using a 5 MV inductive voltage adder (IVA) as a pulsed photoneutron source was studied. In these experiments, a large-area bremsstrahlung diode was fielded on the Mercury accelerator, producing an intense, pulsed x-ray beam, which generated photoneutrons when striking an appropriate target. This paper reports on simulations that were performed to study the production of the electron beam in the diode, and the generation and transport of the x-ray beam. Comparison is made between the numerically predicted beam properties and results obtained during the experimental campaign. Various models of electron and ion emission from the electrodes in the generator were simulated, and the effect of model parameter choices on the dose predictions is described.

High-energy X-ray radiographic image restoration is performed using a simulated radiation point spread function and an experimentally derived optical point spread function. It is shown that a robust method for removal of thick monolithic scintillator blur can be determined through independent examination of the blur components. We show that the scintillator blur for a 20 MeV end-point X-ray beam and 20 mm thick LYSO scintillator contributes significantly to the system blur. It is also shown that the optical scatter in the monolithic crystal degrades the low-frequency response of the system. The use of a simulated point spread function for image restoration using deconvolution provides a simple method for image restoration, thereby enhancing feature identification and areal density reconstruction.

The Aerogel Cherenkov Detector for Cygnus (ACD/C) is a time-dependent, x-ray spectral detector that uses SiO2 aerogels spanning an index of refraction (n = 1.02–1.07) corresponding to a 1.1–2.3 MeV x-ray energy threshold. The ACD/C was developed for pulsed power x-ray sources like Cygnus located at the Nevada National Site and Mercury located at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL). Aerogels sit between the measurement capabilities of gas (>2 MeV) and solids such as fused silica (>0.3 MeV). The detector uses an aluminum converter to Compton scatter incoming x-rays and create relativistic electrons, which produce Cherenkov light in an aerogel or a fused silica medium. The ACD/C was fielded at the NRL when Mercury was tuned to produce up to 4.8 MeV endpoint bremsstrahlung. Despite a high radiation and electromagnetic interference background, the ACD/C was able to achieve high signal over noise across five aerogel densities and fused silica, including a signal to noise for a 1.1 MeV aerogel threshold. Previous experiments at Cygnus observed a signal that was comparable to the noise (1×) at the same threshold. The ACD/C observed time-resolved rise and fall times for different energy thresholds of the photon spectrum. Monte Carlo simulations of the ACD/C’s aerogel response curves were folded with a simulation of Mercury’s photon energy spectrum and agree within the error to the observed result.

Our team at Los Alamos National Laboratory has performed many successful energy-spectra measurements of both continuous and flash, intense radiographic sources with Compton spectrometers. In this method, a collimated beam of x-rays incident on a convertor foil ejects Compton electrons. A collimator may be inserted into the entrance of the spectrometer to select the angular acceptance of the forward-scattered electrons, which then enter the magnetic field region of the spectrometer. The position of the electrons at the magnet’s focal plane is proportional to the square root of their momentum, allowing the x-ray spectrum to be reconstructed. A Compton spectrometer with an energy range of

Our team at Los Alamos National Laboratory has successfully employed Compton spectrometers to measure the X-ray spectra of both continuous and flash radiographic sources. In this method, a collimated beam of X-rays incident on a converter foil ejects Compton electrons. A collimator may be inserted into the entrance of the spectrometer to narrow the angular acceptance of the forward-scattered electrons, which then enter the magnetic field region of the spectrometer. The position of the electrons at the magnet’s focal plane is proportional to the square root of their momentum, allowing the X-ray spectrum to be reconstructed. A new samarium-cobalt spectrometer with an energy range of 50 keV to 4 MeV has been fielded at two facilities. The X-ray generating machines produced intense photon beams (> 4 rad at 1 m) with spectral endpoints below 3 MeV. Recent experimental results will be presented.

Our team at Los Alamos National Laboratory has successfully employed Compton spectrometers to measure the x-ray spectra of intense radiographic sources, both continuous and flash. In this method, a collimated beam of x-rays incident on a convertor foil ejects Compton electrons. A collimator may be inserted into the entrance of the spectrometer to select the angular acceptance of the forward-scattered electrons, which then enter the magnetic field region of the spectrometer. The position of the electrons at the magnet's focal plane is proportional to the square root of their momentum, allowing the x-ray spectrum to be reconstructed. Two spectrometers have been fielded since 2013; a neodymium-iron-boron permanent magnet with an energy range of 500 keV to 20 MeV, and a new samarium-cobalt magnet with an energy range of 50 keV to 4 MeV. Measured spectra were produced by x-ray generating machines of various intensities (~5 rad at 1 m per 50 ns pulse to >2000 rad/min at 1 m) and different endpoints (range of 2.25 to 20 MeV). Preliminary analysis of the electron spectra produced at two different facilities with various beryllium converter foil thicknesses is presented in these proceedings.

During the previous three years, a Compton spectrometer has successfully measured the x-ray spectra of both continuous and flash radiographic sources. In this method, a collimated beam of x-rays incident on a convertor foil ejects Compton electrons. A collimator in the entrance to the spectrometer selects the forward-scattered electrons, which enter the magnetic field region of the spectrometer. The position of the electrons at the magnet’s focal plane is proportional to the square root of their momentum, allowing the x-ray spectrum to be reconstructed. The spectrometer is a neodymium-iron magnet which measures spectra in the

Accurate knowledge of the x-ray spectra used in medical treatment and radiography is important for dose calculations and material decomposition analysis. Indirect measurements via transmission through materials are possible. However, such spectra are challenging to measure directly due to the high photon fluxes. One method of direct measurement is via a Compton spectrometer (CS) method. In this approach, the x-rays are converted to a much lower flux of electrons via Compton scattering on a converter foil (typically beryllium or aluminum). The electrons are then momentum selected by bending in a magnetic field. With tight angular acceptance of electrons into the magnet of ~ 1 deg, there is a linear correlation between incident photon energy and electron position recorded on an image plate. Here we present measurements of Bremsstrahlung spectrum from a medical therapy machine, a Scanditronix M22 Microtron. Spectra with energy endpoints from 6 to 20 MeV are directly measured, using a CS with a wide energy range from 0.5 to 20 MeV. We discuss the sensitivity of the device and the effects of converter material and collimation on the accuracy of the reconstructed spectra. Approaches toward improving the sensitivity, including the use of coded apertures, and potential future applications to characterization of spectra are also discussed.

A Compton spectrometer has been re-commissioned for measurements of flash radiographic sources. The determination of the energy spectrum of these sources is difficult due to the high count rates and short nature of the pulses (~50 ns). The spectrometer is a 300 kg neodymium-iron magnet which measures spectra in the

We are investigating scintillator performance in radiographic imaging systems at xray endpoint energies of 0.4 and - 2.3 MeV in single -pulse x-ray machines. The effect of scene magnification and geometric setup will be examined along with differences between the detector response of radiation and optical scatter. Previous discussion has reviewed energy absorption and efficiency of various imaging scintillators with a 2.3 MeV x -ray source. The focal point of our study is to characterize scintillator blur to refine system models. Typical detector geometries utilize thin tiled LYSO:Ce (cerium-doped lutetium yttrium orthosilicate) assembled in a composite mosaic. Properties of individual tiles are being studied to understand system resolution effects present in the experimental setup. Comparison of two different experiments with different geometric configurations is examined. Results are then compared to different scene magnifications generated in a Monte- Carlo simulation .

Flash radiography is a diagnostic with many physics applications, and the characterization of the energy spectra of such sources is of interest. A Compton spectrometer has been proposed to conduct these measurements. Our Compton spectrometer is a 300 kg neodymium-iron magnet constructed by Morgan et al1, and it is designed to measure spectra in the

We have investigated scintillator efficiency for MeV radiographic imaging. This paper discusses the modeled detection efficiency and measured brightness of a number of scintillator materials. An optical imaging camera records images of scintillator emission excited by a pulsed x-ray machine. The efficiency of various thicknesses of monolithic LYSO:Ce (cerium-doped lutetium yttrium orthosilicate) are being studied to understand brightness and resolution trade-offs compared with a range of micro-columnar CsI:Tl (thallium-doped cesium iodide) scintillator screens. The micro-columnar scintillator structure apparently provides an optical gain mechanism that results in brighter signals from thinner samples. The trade-offs for brightness versus resolution in monolithic scintillators is straightforward. For higher-energy x-rays, thicker materials generally produce brighter signal due to x-ray absorption and the optical emission properties of the material. However, as scintillator thickness is increased, detector blur begins to dominate imaging system resolution due to the volume image generated in the scintillator thickness and the depth of field of the imaging system. We employ a telecentric optical relay lens to image the scintillator onto a recording CCD camera. The telecentric lens helps provide sharp focus through thicker-volume emitting scintillators. Stray light from scintillator emission can also affect the image scene contrast. We have applied an optical light scatter model to the imaging system to minimize scatter sources and maximize scene contrasts.

Cygnus is a high-energy radiographic x-ray source. Three large zoom lenses have been assembled to collect images from large scintillators. A large elliptical pellicle (394 × 280 mm) deflects the scintillator light out of the x-ray path into an eleven-element zoom lens coupled to a CCD camera. The zoom lens and CCD must be as close as possible to the scintillator to maximize light collection. A telecentric lens design minimizes image blur from a volume source. To maximize the resolution of objects of different sizes, the scintillator and zoom lens are translated along the x-ray axis, and the zoom lens magnification changes. Zoom magnification is also changed when different-sized recording cameras are used (50 or 62 mm square format). The LYSO scintillator measures 200 × 200 mm and is 5 mm thick. The scintillator produces blue light peaking at 435 nm, so special lens materials are required. By swapping out one doublet and allowing all other lenses to be repositioned, the zoom lens can also use a CsI(Tl) scintillator that produces green light centered at 540 nm (for future operations). All lenses have an anti-reflective coating for both wavelength bands. Two sets of doublets, the stop, the scintillator, and the CCD camera move during zoom operations. One doublet has x-y compensation. Alignment of the optical elements was accomplished using counter propagating laser beams and monitoring the retro-reflections and steering collections of laser spots. Each zoom lens uses 60 lb of glass inside the 425 lb mechanical structure, and can be used in either vertical or horizontal orientation.

Our goal is to collect x-ray images of different sized targets, which are positioned inside a containment vessel, onto different sized CCD cameras.

The CYGNUS extensive air-shower experiment is described. The design criteria, construction and operation details, and performance characteristics are presented. A discussion of the data analysis techniques is given. Finally, several enhancements and improvements in the apparatus are described.

The rod-pinch diode[1] is a self-magnetically insulated electron beam diode that is capable of producing a very bright source of hard x-rays. As fielded on the Cygnus accelerator[2], the diode operates at an impedance of 50 Ohms and produces short pulse ( ∼50 ns) bremsstrahlung radiation with a 2 MeV photon endpoint energy and dose of 4 rad measured at one meter, with an x-ray spot size ∼ 1mm. The source can be used to image through ∼ 40 g/cm2 of material with spatial resolution of order 300 µm. Recently, a series of experiments on Cygnus have been conducted to better characterize the diode's operation and x-ray output. In particular, the x-ray spectral content, source spot-size, and shot-to-shot reproducibility have been diagnosed. The intent of these experiments is to enable improvements that may extend the diode's radiographic utility. An array of diagnostics have been utilized which include, end-on and side view x-ray pin hole imaging, time resolved and time integrated spot size measurements, step wedges, x-ray p-i-n diodes, and diode/MITL current measurements. High fidelity, PIC/Monte-Carlo simulations have also been conducted to help analyze the data. An overview of these experiments, simulations, and the conclusions from analysis is presented.