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Oxidative stress has been proposed to mediate one of the most important aspects of life-history evolution: the trade-off between reproduction and self-maintenance. However, empirical studies have cast doubt on the generality of this intriguing notion. Here, we hypothesize that reproduction alters oxidative status only when a trade-off between reproduction and self-maintenance occurs. Accordingly, in female Bicyclus anynana butterflies, we found that reproduction affected oxidative markers only under challenging thermal conditions that made the trade-off between reproduction and longevity emerge. Interestingly, under such conditions, butterflies favored longevity over reproduction, suggesting that self-maintenance mechanisms were activated. Accordingly, butterflies reproducing under challenging thermal conditions exhibited enhanced antioxidant defenses and stable oxidative damage. Altogether, our results indicate that a trade-off between reproduction and self-maintenance is indeed a necessary condition for reproduction to alter oxidative status, and that the effects of such a trade-off on oxidative status depend on whether priority is given to self-maintenance or reproduction. Assessing the existence of the trade-off between self-maintenance and reproduction, and whether self-maintenance is prioritized relative to reproduction is therefore crucial for understanding variation in oxidative status in reproducing animals, which may clarify the general implication of oxidative stress in the resolution of life-history trade-offs., (© 2015 The Author(s). Evolution © 2015 The Society for the Study of Evolution.)

Environmental factors exert strong effects on phenotypic expression. A particularly intriguing factor capable of inducing such plastic responses is the social environment experienced by a specific individual. Such social effects may alter the fitness of focal individuals if they affect the expression of reproductive traits and thus life-history strategies. To examine this question, we investigated the effects of individual density on morphology, reproduction, and behavior of male Bicyclus anynana butterflies. Increasing density significantly increased male body mass and the probability to succeed in aggressive interactions and tended to increase abdomen fat content. At the same time, increasing density significantly decreased courtship activity and tended to decrease sperm number. These results suggest that individual density seemed to induce differential strategic investment into survival and somatic maintenance versus reproduction in male butterflies. Males kept at high densities apparently favored high body mass and storage, which may enable longer survival during times of intense intraspecific competition. Moreover, their competitiveness was enhanced as suggested by a higher success in aggressive interactions. Males kept at low density, in contrast, favored reproduction through increased courtship activity and sperm production. Our study illustrates that the effects of density on the expression of morphological and behavioral traits are complex and difficult to predict, owing to resource-allocation trade-offs resulting in prudent strategic investment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]