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Because port operations have rapidly been extending, air pollution resulted from ports has been increased and become a persistent concern for environmentalist and policy makers. The objective of this paper is to measure the environmental efficiency of ports in Korea. The main characteristic of the environmental efficiency assessment problem is that undesirable output of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and exogenous fixed input of the terminal area of ports should concurrently be considered. By analysing the impacts of the exogenous fixed input and undesirable outputs on decision making units (DMUs) performance, a super efficiency slacks-based measure in data envelopment analysis (SE-SBM-DEA) approach is proposed. The proposed approach consists of two models: slacks-based measure (SBM) model and super efficiency SBM (SE-SBM) model. The models effectively discriminate between efficient and inefficient ports, and rank their efficiencies. To restrict any decreases or increases in the fixed input levels, the slacks of fixed inputs are removed from the target functions and their relevant constraints of the proposed approach. In addition, the undesirable outputs are formulated according to the weak disposability assumption, so that they can only be reduced with the reduction of certain desirable outputs. Hence, its slack should also be removed from the SBM and SE-SBM models. As a result, the scalar measures of the models only deal with the discretionary inputs and desirable outputs of a DMU being evaluated. We examine the applicability of the proposed approach, using real data, for 19 ports in Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to estimate the potential economic benefits, energy and CO2emissions reductions when using trusted third-party digital repository (TTPR) services in one individual bank, and within the banking industry in Korea. First, the cost, benefit and net benefit of using TTPR services in the banking industry are estimated. Second, the net induced output effect is estimated. Third, based on an environmentally extended input–output analysis, CO2emissions reduction was estimated as 1924.32 tons in 2009 and the energy consumption reduction as 640.70 TOE. Fourth, the total economic benefit, which is the sum of the net induced output effect and economic value of CO2emissions reductions, is approximately $11.04 million. The findings demonstrate that energy consumption and CO2emissions reductions are meaningful enough to result in significant economic benefits. Therefore, the Korean government should promote the use of TTPR services in the entire industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By likening biocapacity and ecological footprint, the load capacity factor follows a specified ecological threshold, permitting for an in-depth analysis of ecological damage. It can be seen that as the load capacity factor is reduced, the ecological damage intensifies. Until now, scholars have used carbon dioxide, ecological footprint, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and other indices to objectively examine ecological problems. The utilization of these metrics can cause the supply side of ecological concerns to be overlooked. To make up for this weakness, this paper evaluates the impact of structural change and trade globalization on the load capacity factor. The research also considers other drivers of load capacity factors such as economic growth and energy. We utilized the nonparametric such as nonparametric causality and quantile-on-quantile (QQ) regression approaches to scrutinize these interconnections for South Korea between 1970 and 2018. The findings from the QQ approach disclosed that in the majority of the quantiles, the influence of economic growth, structural change, energies (renewable and nonrenewable), and trade globalization mitigate the load capacity factor. Moreover, the nonparametric causality test divulged that in variance and mean, all the independent variables can predict the load capacity factor. Policy proposals for South Korea's sustainable development are offered based on the findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses the pollution haven hypothesis (PHH) to examine the effects of foreign direct investment (FDI) and government expenditures on environmental quality in Korea. For this purpose, we conducted autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bounds testing for the period 1970–2018. Empirical results indicate that in Korea, increased FDI, per capita gross domestic product (GDP), energy use, and imports have led to increased per capita carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, while government expenditures, renewable energy, and exports have led to decreased per capita CO2 emissions. Empirical results also reveal an N-shaped relationship between per capita GDP and per capita CO2 emissions. Moreover, the PHH is valid in Korea to a moderate degree, and the detrimental effect of FDI on environmental quality is relatively limited. Furthermore, government expenditures improve environmental quality. These empirical findings support Korea's leading role in implementing comprehensive green growth initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of carbon dioxide utilization (CDU) technologies is heavily influenced by policy priorities such as access to renewable energy resources and the country's economic structure. At the same time, most conversion-based CDU technologies are early-stage technologies characterized by significant uncertainties due to a nascent knowledgebase and limited available data. Consequently, identifying major sustainability hurdles and hotspots is crucial in ensuring effective allocations of R&D resources in technology upgrading and upscaling. In this study, we formulate the task of identifying sustainability hurdles as assessing and ranking key sources of risk that influence whether a given CDU technology is sustainable or not. To this end, we propose a novel methodology for risk-based uncertainty assessment through classification based on stakeholder-set sustainability decision rules. Risk is subsequently quantified by comparing the class likelihoods. For multiple sustainability criteria scenarios, additional stakeholder input in the form of joint conditional probabilities is implemented in the decision rules. We demonstrate the methodology by applying it to the CO2 hydrogenation to formic acid process employing heterogeneous Ru/bpyTN-30-CTF catalysts, being developed as part of the ongoing Carbon-to-X R&D initiative in South Korea. The proposed methodology is most applicable to CDU technologies with TRLs between 3 and 5 in which the core utilization concepts have already been experimentally validated and the conceptual design process has started. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the effects of energy efficiency and environmental labels on households' choice of appliances, using a discrete choice experiment approach. Labeling programs currently operated by the South Korean government are considered in the empirical study, and the effects of such labels on appliance choice. This paper found that households showed a positive preference for labeled appliances, and an intention to pay more to purchase appliances with energy efficiency, and/or other environmental labels, with more value placed on energy efficiency labels than other environmental labels. The results of this study offer implications for both the government and manufacturers. For promotion of 'green' appliances, it is recommended that the South Korean government expand the list of items mandatorily included in its labeling programs. For manufacturers, it is worth noting that consumers properly identify the information regarding energy efficiency, and environmental friendliness with reasonable monetary value. Thus, appliance manufacturers would be wise to concentrate on improving energy efficiency grades, and acquiring environmental labels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explore the relationship between carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, fossil fuels energy consumption (FE), home patents (HP), foreign patents (FP), foreign direct investment (FDI), and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in South Korea over the period 1980–2018 by employing the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach. Results reveal that FE, HP, and GDP have positive impacts on CO2 emissions, while FP have a negative impact. Furthermore, FE and FP act positively on GDP, whereas HP and CO2 emissions act negatively on it. In addition, HP, FDI, and GDP have positive effects on FP, and FE harms FP. Granger causality findings reveal that in the long run there will be two-way causality between CO2 emissions, GDP, HP, and FE, while, in the short run, there is one-way causality running from HP, FE, and FP to GDP; from FP to HP; from HP and FP to FE, and from HP and FP to CO2 emissions. Since foreign patents enhance environmental quality and boost economic growth, the South Korean government should encourage the use of foreign patents and promote clean technology home patents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The continuous rise of CO2 emissions is a major cause of global climate change. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is widely seen as a practical technology for reducing CO2 emissions. CCS mainly consists of capturing CO2 from large emitting sources and its transportation to a sequestration site where it can be stored safely for a long period of time. The average CO2 emission growth rate of Korea is 1.0% which is the second highest among the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. It becomes even more challenging when CO2 is transported to an offshore storage since there is little experience with subsea pipelines for CO2 transportation. In this study, a plausible transport and storage model scheme has been developed and then employed to study different offshore CO2 transportation cases for South Korea as: CO2 transport in liquid phase (Temperature= −20°C, Pressure= 6.50 MPa); CO2 transport in liquid phase (Temperature= 5°C, Pressure= 9.30 MPa); CO2 transport in supercritical phase (Temperature= 40°C, Pressure= 15.00 MPa). CO2 storage capacity in sedimentary basins of Korea is evaluated between 19 and 27.2 Gt (giga-ton) of CO2. Finally, this paper explores the costs associated with transport and geologic sequestration of CO2. Transport cost varies from 10.9 to 15.5 US$/tCO2 while the storage cost ranges from 20.8 to 21.3 US$/tCO2 depending on the specific scenario and depth at which CO2 is stored. Sensitivity analysis showed a decrease in storage cost of 62.4% and 93.6% in 2030 and 2050 respectively for projected CO2 volumes in Korea. © 2013 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Environ Prog, 33: 978-992, 2014 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-Precision (±0.1 ppm), high-frequency (hourly averaged) measurement of atmospheric carbon dioxide (C02) was made at Gosan Station on Jeju Island, Korea, using a Non-dispersive Infrared (NDIR) analyzer calibrated with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Earth System Research Laboratory standards. This paper presents the one-year results from these measurements, including discussions on data quality control and data selection, data characteristics through comparing with other regional data and on the techniques for estimating potential source regions of pollution emissions in Northeast Asia with pollution events in the record. Comparisons of the continuous monitoring data with independent flask measurements at Gosan show good correlation in overall trend. In addition, the continuous monitoring data show signals of extreme pollution and sink episodes which are difficult to monitor in discrete flask measurements, showing the importance of continuous measurements. The CO2 concentrations of "representative data" at Gosan, derived by the statistical pollution identification procedure, show strong seasonality similar to those of other background observatories in the middle-to-high Northern Hemisphere. The amplitude of the seasonal variation at Gosan is approximately 16 ppm, similar to high-latitude Northern Hemisphere marine sites such as Ryori and Point Barrow stations. A hybrid receptor model was applied to the "regional pollution events", a statistically extracted subset of the data with a high probability of being influenced by regional pollution for understanding the distribution and strengths of the major CO2 pollution sources in the Northeast Asia region. Results indicate strong potential source areas around the Yangtze River region including Shanghai and the Huabei plain including Beijing of China, as well as the Korean peninsula including Seoul contributing to pollution events observed at Gosan. The methodologies and results describe our continuing efforts in establishing a "top-down" estimation of greenhouse gas emissions in the Northeast Asia region, important for scientific validation and monitoring of anthropogenic CO2 emissions from the active industrial development in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In line with the fact that carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technology has been regarded as one of the most promising option to mitigate the climate change and global warming, we have started a 10-year R&D project on CO2 storage in marine geological structure. We carried out relevant studies, which cover the initial survey of potentially suitable marine geological structure for CO2 storage site, monitoring of the stored CO2 behavior, basic design for CO2 transport and storage process including onshore/offshore plant and assessment of potential environmental risk related to CO2 leakage in storage site. The purpose of this paper is to introduce and review the latest progress on the development of technologies for CO2 storage in marine geological structure and its perspective application in republic of Korea. At current stage, sub-seabed geological storage at ocean region is technically more feasible and economically attractive CO2 disposal option. Therefore, we try to capture CO2 from major point sources (eg., steel making industry and power plant) and transport CO2 for long-term storage into the marine geological structure in coastal area around the Korean Peninsula. We developed Korean technology roadmap for CO2 storage in marine geological structure and carried out collaborative basic and detail researches to demonstrate the feasibility of CO2 storage with national research institute and university groups. By using the results of the present researches, we can contribute to understanding not only how commercial scale (about 1 Mt CO2) deployment of CO2 storage in the marine geological structure of East Sea, Korea, is realized but also how more reliable and safe CCS is achieved. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Examines a method for estimating carbon dioxide emissions given off over the entire life cycle of various types of residential buildings in Korea. Four stages of the life cycle of a residential building; Carbon dioxide emissions in each life cycle stage; Inventory analysis that quantifies carbon dioxide emissions generated from manufacturing of building materials to demolition; Cause of carbon dioxide emissions.

Marine plankton comprise the largest portion of the marine biomass, and play critical roles in the global carbon cycle. The carbon retention of marine-plankton communities is as important as their primary production; however, data on the annual carbon retention of marine-plankton communities based on daily sample analysis are limited. Using our published and unpublished data, we calculated the one-year integrated carbon retention of a marine-plankton community at an innermost fixed station in the highly eutrophic Masan Bay, Korea, collected daily from June 2004 to May 2005. The total one-year integrated carbon retention of all plankton taxa in the study period was 471 g C m−3 yr−1. The integrated carbon retentions by phytoplankton, heterotrophic protists, and heterotrophic bacteria were 344, 76, and 40 g C m−3 yr−1, respectively, whereas those by photosynthetic ciliates and metazooplankton were 9 and 2 g C m−3 yr−1, respectively. Among the plankton subgroups, the integrated carbon retention by the phototrophic dinoflagellates (109 g C m−3 yr−1) was highest, followed by raphidophytes (88), cryptophytes (73), diatoms (43), heterotrophic bacteria (40), and heterotrophic dinoflagellates (39). The total duration of the red tides by diatoms that grow using only photosynthesis (42 days), was considerably shorter than that of phototrophic dinoflagellates, raphidophytes, or cryptophytes, which can grow mixotrophically (56–135 days). The shorter duration of red tides by diatoms was primarily responsible for their lower carbon retention, although the maximum growth rates of the diatoms were considerably higher than those of the flagellates. The percentage of the 1-year integrated carbon retention of the heterotrophic protists relative to that of the phytoplankton was approximately 20%, similar to the mean-gross-growth efficiency of heterotrophic-protist grazers on phytoplankton, indicating a good balance between these two components in the planktonic food web. This study reported one-year integrated carbon retention of marine plankton at the species level, calculated based on daily samples, and thus gave an insight into which, and to what extent, species and groups contribute to the total carbon retention of plankton for one year in a highly eutrophic bay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The Yangdok and Hoechang granites are connected with the volcanic arc setting. • Pyrite geochemistry shows its I-type granitic magma-derived hydrothermal origin. • The Songhung deposit exhibits hydrothermal origin. The Songhung deposit is located in the southwestern part of the Yangdok metamorphic core complex (YMCC) in the northern portion of the Pyongnam Basin, the eastern part of the Sino-Korean Craton. In this paper, we present a detailed study on the magma sources of the granitoids (Yangdok and Hoechang graintic intrusions), genesis of pyrite and fluid inclusion characteristics for sufficient and additional understanding of tectonic events, petrogenesis of the granitoids and mineralization in the study deposit. The Yangdok granite has lower Al 2 O 3 /TiO 2 ratios (mean value of 60.58) than the Hoechang granite (mean value of 994.46), indicating the higher temperature magma source of the former. On the Rb/Ba vs. Rb/Sr and CaO/(TFeO + MgO + TiO 2) vs. (CaO + TFeO + MgO + TiO 2) discriminant diagrams, the magma source of the Yangdok granite belongs in the plagioclase-rich and clay-poor source rocks, while those of the Hoechang granite plots either in the plagioclase-rich and clay-poor source rocks (for granite and fine-grained granite) or in the plagioclase-poor and clay-rich source rocks (for granite porphyry and felsite). On the Nb vs. Y, Ta vs. Yb, Rb vs. Y + Nb and Rb vs. Yb + Ta tectonomagmatic discrimination diagrams, these two granites are connected with the volcanic arc-related setting and plot in post-collision setting. Moreover, some data of the Hoechang granite fall in WPG field, suggesting that the volcanic arc setting may be changed to an intraplate setting from Middle Cretaceous. The pyrite trace element geochemistry, showing the high Co/Ni ratio than one with an average of 8.2 and high Co content and low Ni content, suggests that its forma t ion was closely linked with I-type granitic magma-derived hydrothermal fluid mixed with meteoric water. It could also be assumed by the Co and As contents in pyrite, indicating a certain degree of meteoric water in the ore forming fluid. It is consonant to the Pb, S, C and O isotope geochemistry in the previous study, suggesting that ore-forming fluids and metals could be derived from both the Yangdok granite and the Proterozoic and Paleozoic meta-sedimentary rocks exposed in the study area. All of the pyrite grains have not compositional zoning and the similar distribution patterns of Co and Ni are appeared in single pyrite grain (from core to rim), suggesting the stable crystallization environment of pyrites and same ore forming fluid source. In pyrite grains, the positive correlation between gold and arsenic is appeared. The Au exists either as a micro- and nano-size inclusion in pyrite and other minerals or as a solid solution in pyrite lattice. Based on the petrological and microthermometric characteristics of the fluid inclusions in ore-bearing quartz, we suggest that the ore-forming fluid is represented as NaCl + H 2 O or NaCl + KCl + H 2 O systems with low salinity. The absence of CO 2 -enriched phase and vapor-only or liquid-only primary inclusions in quartz indicates the homogenous magma-derived ore forming fluids and a lack of boiling during ore-forming process. The formation temperature and pressure of this deposit approximately vary from 317 to 326 °C and from 105.46 to 111.69 × 105 Pa, respectively, exhibiting the hydrothermal deposit origin. In conclusion, the Songhung deposit is originated from I-type granitic magma source-derived hydrothermal fluid which was mixed with meteoric water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Janggi Basin has suitable geological conditions for small-scale CO2 pilot storage. • Siliciclastic-volcaniclastic storage combination exhibits high storage potential. • Basin extension structures enhance confining potential of storage via juxtaposed seal. • Sedimentary basin under volcanic influence can have available geological storage site. • Reassessment of CO 2 storage potential through multidisciplinary synthesis is needed. This paper presents the results of site selection and characterization for onshore 10,000-ton-class CO 2 pilot storage in the Miocene Janggi Basin, SE Korea. The results were obtained from an integrated analysis of geological, geophysical, and geotechnical data, and indicated that Noeseongsan Subbasin is filled by >1-km-thick terrestrial sediments with dacitic to basaltic volcanic materials. Promising storage units are coarse siliciclastic sediments intercalated with mudstones in the lowermost Janggi Conlomerate, exhibiting suitable reservoir-caprock association for CO 2 injection. The overlying Seongdongri Formation is composed of laterally extensive dacitic tuffs and fine-dominated tuffaceous sediments, forming a regional seal. The storage combination is characterized by a doubly sealed stratigraphic trap, and is laterally confined by juxtaposed seals formed by syndepositional normal fault sets. By considering the stratigraphic and structural features, the conglomerate and sandstone bodies at the boreholes JG-6 (940−971 m) and JG-7−1 (946−970 m) were selected as the optimal site for CO 2 storage. It is expected that the stratigraphic and structural traps at the selected site minimize the leakage risk of injected CO 2 due to the scarcity of surface and subsurface fractures, low fault intensity, and limited vertical extents of buried faults. The present study reveals that if multidisciplinary approaches involving careful synthesis of the basin were performed, an adequate storage site also can be obtained in this type of small-scale ancient sedimentary basin bearing abundant volcanic materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To understand the Korean Peninsula's carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions and sinks as well as those of the surrounding region, we used 70 flask-air samples collected during May 2014 to August 2016 at Anmyeondo (AMY; 36.53 ∘ N, 126.32 ∘ E; 46 m a.s.l.) World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) station, located on the west coast of South Korea, for analysis of observed 14 C in atmospheric CO 2 as a tracer of fossil fuel CO 2 contribution (Cff). Observed 14 C / C ratios in CO 2 (reported as Δ values) at AMY varied from -59.5 ‰ to 23.1 ‰, with a measurement uncertainty of ±1.8 ‰. The derived mean value Cff of (9.7±7.8) µ mol mol -1 (1σ) is greater than that found in earlier observations from Tae-Ahn Peninsula (TAP; 36.73 ∘ N, 126.13 ∘ E; 20 m a.s.l., 28 km away from AMY) of (4.4±5.7) µ mol mol -1 from 2004 to 2010. The enhancement above background mole fractions of sulfur hexafluoride (Δx(SF6)) and carbon monoxide (Δx(CO)) correlate strongly with Cff (r>0.7) and appear to be good proxies for fossil fuel CO 2 at regional and continental scales. Samples originating from the Asian continent had greater Δx(CO) : Cff(RCO) values, (29±8) to (36±2) nmol µ mol -1 , than in Korean Peninsula local air ((8±2) nmol µ mol -1). Air masses originating in China showed (1.6±0.4) to (2.0±0.1) times greater RCO than a bottom-up inventory, suggesting that China's CO emissions are underestimated in the inventory, while observed RSF6 values are 2–3 times greater than inventories for both China and South Korea. However, RCO values derived from both inventories and observations have decreased relative to previous studies, indicating that combustion efficiency is increasing in both China and South Korea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: The use of two-floor bench bed systems to improve the strawberry productivity in Korea is increasing. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate the effect of different combinations of light intensity and carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration on photosynthesis, chlorophyll fluorescence, and fruit yield in strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa). METHODS: A two-floor bench bed system was used for light intensity treatments. CO2 fertilizer was supplied, from December 5 to January 30, when the concentration in a greenhouse fell below 700μmolmol–1, while the control received only ambient CO2. RESULTS: Strawberry plants that were grown under high light intensity in the upper bed had a higher photosynthesis rate than plants grown under low light intensity in the bottom bed; however, light intensity had a negligible effect on the stomatal conductance (Sc) and transpiration rate (Tr) of strawberry leaves. In contrast, CO2 fertilization lowered Sc and Tr values in strawberry leaves. Plants grown under low light intensity without CO2 fertilization had the highest chlorophyll fluorescence decrease ratio. Fruit yield was highest in plants grown under high light intensity, with CO2 fertilization having relatively little effect; however, CO2 fertilization stimulated the accumulation of anthocyanins. CONCLUSIONS: CO2 fertilization is effective in a two-floor bench bed system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is one of several useful strategies for capturing greenhouse gases to counter global climate change. In CCS, greenhouse gases such as CO2 that are emitted from stacks are isolated in underground geological storage. Natural analogue studies that can provide insights into possible geological CO2 storage sites, can deliver crucial information about the safety and security of geological sequestration, the long-term impact of CO2 storage on the environment, and the field operation and monitoring requirements for geological sequestration. This study adopted a probability density function (PDF) approach for CO2 leakage monitoring by characterizing naturally occurring CO2-rich groundwater as an analogue that can occur around a CO2 storage site due to CO2 dissolving into fresh groundwater. Two quantitative indices, (QItail and QIshift), were estimated from the PDF test and were used to compare CO2-rich and ordinary groundwaters. Key geochemical parameters (pH, electrical conductance, total dissolved solids, HCO3-, Ca2+, Mg2+, and SiO2) in different geological regions of South Korea were determined through a comparison of quantitative indices and the respective distribution patterns of the CO2-rich and ordinary groundwaters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mechanized timber harvesting is cost efficient and highly productive. However, mechanized harvesting operations are often associated with several environmental problems, including soil compaction and disturbance. Soil compaction impedes air circulation between the soil and atmosphere, which in turn results in increased concentrations of CO2 within soil pores. In this study, we investigated the impact of forest machine traffic on soil conditions to determine soil CO2 efflux (Fc), and soil CO2 concentrations (Sc). Field measurements included soil bulk density (BD), soil temperature (ST), soil water content (SWC), Fc, and Sc over a 3-year period at a specific thinning operation site (Hwacheon-gun) in the Gangwon Province of Korea. To assess the soil impacts associated with machine traffic, we established four machine-treatment plots (MT) characterized by different geographical and traffic conditions. The results revealed that BD, Sc, and SWC increased significantly on the disturbed track areas (p < 0.05). Furthermore, reduced soil Fc values were measured on the soil-compacted (machine disturbed) tracks in comparison with undisturbed (control) areas. Variations in BD, SWC, and Sc were significantly different among the four MT plots. Additionally, in comparison with undisturbed areas, lower Fc and higher Sc values were obtained in compacted areas with high soil temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the strong similarities between energy-resource-poor and fossil-fuel-centered economies (e.g., Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea) in terms of economy, culture, and energy usage characteristics, they should be analyzed collectively. This study adopted two-tier input-output structural decomposition analysis to identify the driving forces behind CO2 emissions to these countries to the formulation of effective environmental policy. Data from the World Input-Output Database was used to decompose relative changes in CO2 emissions into a range of technological advances, factor substitution, and final demand effects. Technological advances in energy (direct) contributed to a 77% reduction in Taiwan and a 34% reduction in South Korea. This is a clear indication that improving energy efficiency via technological advances should be a priority. In Japan in particular, there was a 22% reduction in CO2 emissions attributable to technological advances in materials; hence, it is recommended that Taiwan and South Korea work to extensively develop eco-industrial parks to create industry clusters to promote resource/energy efficiency and reductions in CO2 emissions. Decomposition results based on factor substitution revealed that a variety of strategies will be required, such as switching to fuels that are less carbon intensive, promoting the adoption of renewable energies, and implementing clean-coal technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Korea, a greenhouse gas (GHG) environmental impact assessment (EIA) has been conducting since 2012, which sets the evaluation procedures and methods for GHG items during the EIA. However, the current EIA on GHG emissions can support wrong decision-making because the evaluation does not consider Scope 3 GHG emissions. Accordingly, this study proposed the life cycle EIA (LCEIA) method to identify changes in GHG emissions that need to be managed by considering Scope 3 GHG emissions in construction projects. The LCEIA method incorporates life cycle CO2 (LCCO2) including Scope 1, Scope, and Scope 3 GHG emissions using the concept of life cycle assessment (LCA) into the scoping step of the EIA process. The case study was conducted using existing EIA on GHG emission and LCEIA methodology for a development project in Gwangyang City. Scenario 1 is defined as an approach that calculates GHG emissions using the existing EIA method, and scenario 2 is also defined as a process using the LCEIA method. Results reveal that Scenario 2, including Scope 3 GHG emissions, had 46.4−51.2% more GHG emissions than Scenario 1. Sensitivity analysis for electricity and liquefied natural gas (LNG) density was also performed. Although the change in the carbon emission factor of electricity had a slightly sensitive effect on the research results, the LNG density was found to be less sensitive. This study believes the importance of switching to an EIA reflecting life cycle carbon dioxide (LCCO2) to calculate the exact amount of GHG emissions for construction work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]