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Since the 1980s, Turkey has experienced a significant increase in both foreign direct investment (FDI) and its ecological footprint (EFP). While FDI is widely acknowledged as a pivotal driver of economic growth, its impact on environmental degradation is multifaceted and debated. Moreover, a country's institutional framework plays a key role in shaping this relationship. Yet, the influence of institutional structures on the FDI-environment nexus is often neglected in current literature. In this study, we investigate the environmental implications of FDI in Turkey from 1984 to 2018, employing time series analysis with a Fourier extension and accounting for institutional quality. Fourier function models give more effective results in modeling structural breaks. We first use Fourier techniques to assess the unit root and cointegration relationship. Upon establishing cointegration, we employ the DOLS estimator, extended with Fourier terms, to determine the long-term coefficients. We then assess the causal relationship between the variables using the Fourier causality test. Our findings indicate that while FDI exacerbates environmental degradation (supporting the pollution haven hypothesis), the interaction term of FDI-institutional quality mitigates this degradation (supporting the pollution halo hypothesis). Given these empirical findings, this study suggests that strengthening Turkey's institutional quality has the potential to amplify the environmental advantages of FDI, alongside its economic benefits., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

This paper investigates the impact of geopolitical risks on renewable energy generation in MENAT oil-importing countries, namely, Egypt, Tunisia, and Turkey over the period 1990-2020 using the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model. The main findings emphasize that geopolitical risks play a crucial role in inducing renewable energy development in MENAT oil-importing countries in the short and long run. Financial development appears to positively and significantly affect renewable energy generation in the three countries. Furthermore, the speeds of adjustment towards the long-run equilibrium are 36.78%, 66.03%, and 17.81% annually in Egypt, Tunisia, and Turkey, respectively. In today's volatile and turbulent world, dramatically rising geopolitical risks make the transition to renewable energy an inevitable reality. Consequently, it is incumbent upon policymakers and relevant authorities in MENAT oil-importing countries to preemptively redirect their efforts and strategies to conform to the demands of the inevitable transition to renewable energy sources and boost energy self-reliance., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

A key strategy for social development and sustainable urban expansion is building sustainable and affordable transport systems. In this study, we aim to test the validity of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis and reveal the impact of infrastructure investment in transportation systems in China, Turkey, India, and Japan over the period 1995-2020 on environmental degradation. According to dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) method analysis, per capita GDP and per capita GDP 3 have a significant positive impact on per capita CO 2 emission, while per capita GDP 2 has a significant adverse impact on per capita CO 2 emission. These results confirm the validity of the N-shaped EKC assumption, while inconsistent with the results of the FMOLS technique, showing that per capita GDP is significantly positive, while per capita GDP 2 and per capita GDP 3 have a significant negative impact on per capita carbon emissions. Moreover, as clarified by the fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS) and DOLS methods, road infrastructure investment (RO), aviation infrastructure investment, trade openness, and foreign direct investment (FDI) have significant positive effects, while railway infrastructure investment (RA) has a significant negative effect on per capita carbon emission. Country-level estimates of per capita carbon emission-based DOLS strategies in the model show that only China and Japan have N-shaped EKC hypothesis. Road infrastructure investment, aviation infrastructure investment, and trade openness have significant positive effects, while railway infrastructure investment has a significant negative effect on per capita CO 2 emission in selected central and east Asian countries. The latest electrified rail systems are well thought out and less polluting, so the contribution of rail infrastructure investment to the transport mix can support sustainable and safe transport systems at city center and intercity levels and reduce environmental pollution in central and east Asian countries. Moreover, the implementation of the basic environmental settings of trade agreements should be strengthened to condense the growing impact of free trade on environmental pollution., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

This paper explores the influence of economic policy uncertainty on environmental quality in selected MENA countries depending on an augmented STIRPAT model over the period 1970-2020. ARDL model and its extensions like augmented ARDL, augmented NARDL, and MTNARDL models are applied to detect any possible effect from uncertainty index to carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions. The empirical results reveal the validity of environmental Kuznet curve (EKC) curve in all the countries. Moreover, the results show that the uncertainty index enhances environmental degradation, especially in extremely large changes in Morocco, Turkey, and Iran. Besides, the findings reveal that energy consumption and population in the entire sample escalates CO 2 emissions over the study period. Consequently, policymakers in MENA countries should consider the economic uncertainty index, particularly in light of its recent rise, when developing any strategies and plans aimed at improving environmental standards, as well as the need to encourage the use of renewable energies in order to increase the percentage of their contribution to total energy consumption., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

This article presents a nonlinear analysis in Turkey on the effect of an environmental tax (ET) on the ecological footprint (EFP) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions. In the literature, most of the studies examining the effects of environmental taxes (ETs) on environmental degradation (ED) have used linear methods. The number of studies examining this relationship with nonlinear methods is few. However, there is no study examining the long-run effects of ETs on the EFP, which is one of the most important indicators of ED, using nonlinear analysis. This study contributes to the literature by investigating the long-run effects of ETs on EFP and CO 2 emissions in Turkey by nonlinear analysis. Therefore, the model consisting of annual data for the period 1994-2019 was estimated by Dufrénot et al. (2006) nonlinear cointegration test. According to the estimation results obtained, ETs do not have any long-run effects on EFP and CO 2 emissions. Accordingly, it can be concluded that ETs in Turkey do not affect preventing ED., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

This study uses the output volatility-augmented environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) model to determine the dynamic short- and long-term impacts of the volatility of economic growth (VOL) on carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions in Turkey from 1980 to 2015. The results of the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach indicate that there is a long-run relationship between CO 2 , per capita real GDP, per capita energy use, and VOL. The coefficients obtained from the ARDL estimation indicate that economic growth and energy use increase CO 2 emissions, while VOL decreases CO 2 emissions in the long run. Moreover, the coefficients obtained from the ARDL error correction model show that VOL decreases CO 2 emissions in the short run, as well. We also find that the EKC is valid in Turkey. This implies for the Turkish case that achieving macro-stability under a "just transition" is key for achieving both economic and environmental benefits from ratifying international agreements such as Paris Agreement and EU Green Deal., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Since developing countries experience economic and environmental sustainability challenges, it is desirable digging into the linkages between economic and environmental parameters. The purpose of this work is to evaluate the existence of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) theory (i.e., the inverse U-shape connection between real GDP per capita and per capita carbon dioxide emissions) in the sample of 11 developing countries. By using balanced annual panel data in the period between 1992 and 2014 and two alternative estimation techniques, we explored the potential inverted U-shaped linkage between carbon dioxide emissions and real GDP per capita in the sample of interest. For analysis purposes, Pedroni and Westerlund co-integration techniques are employed. Then, fully modified ordinary least squares, pooled mean group methods are applied for long-run parameter estimations. And, the Dumitrescu-Hurlin causality approach is employed for causal directions. Firstly, this work's findings provide the supportive evidence to the inverse U-shaped linkage in the long-run, indicating that an increase in real GDP per capita and electricity consumption tends to mitigate long-run carbon dioxide emissions in the developing countries, for the whole sample. Secondly, the country-specific findings suggested the presence of EKC theory for Brazil, China, India, Malaysia, the Russian Federation, Thailand, and Turkey. It implicated that these countries are on the path of attaining environmental sustainability in the long-run. However, Mexico, Philippines, Indonesia, and South Africa failed to lend credence to the EKC theory. It manifested that these countries need to design strategies directed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from economic activity and electricity generation through efficiency improvement or promotion of renewables. Finally, bidirectional causal links are observed among all the variables of interest. The findings suggest that country-specific targeted action plans should be implemented to ensure the environmental sustainability in the developing world.

The phenomenal growth experienced by Turkey at the turn of the millennium is attributed in part to increased participation in global value chains. While participation in global value chains has been beneficial to the Turkish economy, it also poses unique environmental challenges. Consequently, this study focuses on shedding some light on the environmental externality of Turkey's participation in global value chains. This article examines the environmental effects of Turkey's participation in global value chains for the period 1990-2018, using a dynamic ARDL analysis. The study further compares the environmental effects of Turkey's backward and forward linkages into global value chains, so as to determine which contributes more to carbon emissions. The cointegration test results and dynamic ARDL simulations confirm the existence of a long-run relationship between the environment and global value chain participation. All measures of global value chain participation display a positive long-run impact on carbon emissions. The results also show that the polluting effect of backward and forward linkages into global value chains is not too different. The study finding suggests that Turkey is being assigned segments of the value chain that require dirtier production processes through incentives from global trade integration, thus making Turkey a pollution haven. It is concluded that this is because other countries continually source for inputs requiring dirty production processes from Turkey, as Turkey also exports final goods that are produced using eco-unfriendly techniques. Policymakers in Turkey therefore need to follow more environmentalist policies in the process of global value chain participation., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Given that Turkey has recently committed itself for the first time to reducing its CO 2 emissions in the interest of sustainable growth in not only Turkey but also the world as a whole, this paper examines the relationship between energy consumption, CO 2 emissions, and economic growth in Turkey for the period 1960-2014. In view of the different findings concerning causality and the character of the relationships between these variables revealed in our review of past studies (in most cases using quite different methods), this paper utilizes several different but related methodological approaches for identifying causal relationships. These include both the Toda and Yamamoto (1995) approach, the Fourier Toda-Yamamoto for Cumulative Frequency approach developed by Nazlioglu et al. (2016), vector error correction model (VECM) methodology, and the asymmetric Granger causality test proposed by Hatemi-J (Empir Econ 43:447-456, Hatemi-j 2012). Our results show that, when we apply the popular Toda-Yamamoto model, causality in these relationships is not confirmed even among any of the relevant variables in Turkey. Yet, when the Fourier Toda-Yamamoto tests for cumulative frequency are employed, we find unidirectional causality running from GDP per capita to emissions of CO 2 per capita. Moreover, when we utilize the VECM methodology, the results show that long-run causality exists from GDP per capita and energy to CO 2 emissions. When we apply the asymmetric causality tests, the results provide even stronger evidence for a unidirectional causal relationship from GDP per capita to CO 2 emissions. As a result, the latter sets of results, based on more realistic conditions, suggest very strongly that, if Turkey is to meet the objectives of its ambitious Climate Change Action Plan commitment to the United Nations to reduce its CO 2 per capita emissions relative to its past trends by up to 21% over the coming 2021-2030 decade, it is going to get very serious about the best way to do this as soon as possible.

For examining the short-run and long-run asymmetric effect of oil prices on stock prices, recent literature uses standard nonlinear autoregressive distributed lag model. However, this model decomposes oil price series into partial sum of positive and negative changes only and fails to examine the effect of extreme changes in the oil price series on stock prices. This study, therefore, extends the existing literature by focusing on the emerging seven countries, i.e., Brazil, India, Russia, China, Mexico, Indonesia, and Turkey, and uses multiple threshold nonlinear ARDL model. This extended model helps to examine the asymmetric effect of extremely small to extremely large changes in the oil price series on stock prices. The estimates from standard nonlinear ARDL model indicate that, in the short run, oil prices significantly and asymmetrically affect stock prices in the context of Russia, Indonesia, and India only, whereas in the long run, insignificant effect is found for all sample countries. On the contrary, multiple threshold nonlinear ARDL model supports asymmetric effect in long run and short run for all sample countries where this effect is stronger in short run. Moreover, all diagnostic tests indicate that this extended model enjoys a better fit and is more stable than the traditional models. The findings, based on this model, provide deeper insights on the relationship between oil prices and stock prices and can be used for investors, policymakers, and other stakeholders.

The critical role of electricity consumption in influencing and reshaping the economic and environmental landscape of the global economy cannot be underestimated. Electricity is the most beneficial and commonly transformed energy source; however, the strength, weakness, opportunities and threat of its consumption require scientific scrutiny. This study investigates electricity-led growth hypothesis vis-à-vis its impact on economic growth and environmental quality of Turkey. The annual time series data set from 1970 to 2014 were employed in the analysis with a battery of unit root and stationary tests. The equilibrium relationship in the study is explored using Maki and Bayer-Hanck combined cointegration tests under multiple structural breaks along with the Pesaran's ARDL bounds test procedure for robust check. The study confirms the existence of cointegration relationship between electricity consumption, economic growth, capital, labour and ecological footprint. To detect the direction of causal relations, the VECM Granger causality test is employed. The causality analysis provides empirical evidence that supports the electricity-induced growth hypothesis in Turkey. This implies that embarking on conservative energy-efficient policies will slow down Turkey's economic growth. Thus, precautionary measures that ensure adequate policy on energy mix to guarantee availability and accessibility to modern electricity will sustain economic growth and improve environmental sustainability.

Reducing environmental pollution is a highly important issue that must be resolved globally. Improving human capital (HC) can significantly contribute to lowering environmental pollution. Using the Fourier ADL (FADL) method, this study examines the long-term effect of HC on carbon emissions (CO 2 emissions) and ecological footprint (EF) in Turkey from 1980 to 2018. In addition, the study examined the long-term effects of economic growth (GDP), financial development (FD), and globalization (KOF) on CO 2 emissions and EF. According to empirical results, HC has a negative effect on both CO 2 emissions and EF. Furthermore, the findings indicate that GDP and FD have a positive effect on CO 2 emissions and EF, whereas KOF has no statistically significant effect on CO 2 emissions and negative EF. According to the FFFF-TY causality test results, there is bidirectional causality between FD and EF and a unidirectional causality from HC to EF and from EF to KOF. This study underlines the importance of human capital in improving environmental quality in Turkey. In this context, the results of this study will assist policy makers in the development of precise policies to enhance human capital in order to improve environmental quality., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Turkey's ecological footprint has recently been increasing, while its biocapacity has been decreasing. Furthermore, the country's CO 2 emissions have been rising substantially in recent decades. Therefore, this study aims to identify the factors that are changing the CO2 emissions in Turkey, not only at the aggregated level but also for the sectors with the highest increases in CO 2 emissions, namely, electricity and heat production. Research into the aggregated CO 2 emissions and the sector-level analysis covered the period 1990-2017. The Shapley decomposition method was utilized, and the impacts of five factors, namely, scale effect, migration effect, population, energy intensity, and carbon intensity, were considered to examine the changes in total CO 2 emissions. Regarding the analysis of the electricity and heat production sectors, the roles of four factors, namely, income effect, electricity intensity, fuel structure, and pollution coefficient, were investigated by using the same decomposition approach. The results showed that the scale effect is the primary driver of acceleration of total CO 2 emissions in Turkey; population, migration, and carbon intensity effects follow the scale effect in this respect. Energy intensity significantly decreases Turkey's total emissions. For the electricity and heat production sectors, the Shapley decomposition results showed that the income effect, electricity intensity, and fuel structure increase the country's CO 2 emissions rapidly. The pollution coefficient was the only factor that decreased CO 2 in these sectors in the studied period. This study reveals that Turkey is still deficient in terms of green development processes, which are essential for a sustainable future., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE part of Springer Nature.)

This study intends to consider the link among carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, real GDP, energy usage, trade, financial development, and construction sector activities in Turkey within the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) framework by employing an autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bounds test procedure. The analysis includes the period of 1970-2015 in keeping with available data. The findings of the study show that an increase in construction sector activities plays a positive role in CO 2 emissions. The results also argue that CO 2 emissions have risen statistically significantly with real GDP and energy usage increases. Furthermore, trade openness positively contributes to carbon emissions, while financial development does not explain environmental pollution in the long term. The study also reveals that the EKC hypothesis holds for Turkey both in the long term and short term. The long-run findings of the study are supported through robustness analysis by applying the dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS), the fully modified ordinary least square (FMOLS), and the canonical cointegrating regression (CCR) methods. The study suggests that the government should take action against environmental deterioration with efficient policies that save energy and reduce emissions regarding the construction and residential sectors' activities, such as providing financial support and tax cuts for relevant companies., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

The quest for improved environmental quality through low-carbon emission has been explored in this study in the wake of the growing call for a transition to renewable energy use amidst widening trade relations between Turkey and the countries in the Caspian region including Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan. This study draws strength from the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs) and their impact by 2030. These SDGs encompass pertinent targets on responsible energy consumption (SDG-12), access to clean and affordable energy (SDG-7), and climate change action (SDG-13). Empirical evidence from the dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) technique corroborated by the fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS) technique shows that a percent rise in renewable energy consumption level significantly abates carbon emission among these countries by about 0.26% while growing globalization vis-à-vis a percent increase in openness to trade significantly hampers environmental quality via inducement of carbon emission level by 0.32%. Extended findings from the Granger causality analysis corroborate the significance of the long-run coefficients with regard to the double-edged benefits of renewable energy consumption in enhancing both environmental quality and income levels through lower carbon emission and sustainable economic growth stimulations among the countries. The study confirmed the inverted U-shape relation between income growth and environmental deterioration, thus validating the EKC hypothesis for Turkey and the Caspian countries. This suggests that both blocs are still at the scale stage of their growth trajectory, where the emphasis is focused on increasing income level relative to environmental sustainability. As such, important policy measures were provided in the concluding section of this study., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Excise taxes on fuel consumption may serve an important role in the abatement of CO2 emissions. Fuel tax has been a significant revenue-raising tool in Turkey for years. The present paper investigates whether there is a relationship between carbon dioxide emissions and public revenues from excise taxes on fuel consumption in Turkey by employing an asymmetric nonlinear cointegration test and error correction model that is a novel methodology proposed by Hepsag Commun Stat-Simul Comp 50:400-412, (2021). We collect our sample that consists of annual data on CO2 emissions, GDP, and fuel tax in Turkey from 1985 to 2018. The empirical findings display that there exist relationships among economic growth, CO2 emissions, and fuel tax supporting the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis in the short and long run. However, we find out that fuel tax is statistically insignificant and has no impact on CO2 emissions. Because a significant carbon dioxide reduction is not possible by fuel taxation, by converting the excise tax on fuel consumption into a carbon tax, a considerable emission reduction can be provided efficiently., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE part of Springer Nature.)

Although there have been many studies, focusing on basic determinants of carbon dioxide emissions (CO 2 ), the effect of higher education, which has the potential to be an important determinant of CO 2 , has been neglected. The paper aims to display the potential mechanisms between higher education and CO 2 and expand the environmental economics literature. In the paper, the trade-off between higher education and CO 2 is tested by autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) during the period 1983-2017 in Turkey. Results denote that cointegration exists and an increase in higher education negatively affects CO 2 . We also find that economic growth and energy consumption positively affect CO 2 both in the long run and short run. Vector error correction model (VECM) reveals that higher education, economic growth, energy consumption, trade openness, and exchange rates are the causes of CO 2 in the long run. Also, energy consumption and economic growth are the causes of CO 2 in the short run. Therefore, higher education can be used to overcome environmental problems.

With the growing interest among researchers in analyzing the ecological footprint of any country, this study focuses on new dimensions to analyze the long-run and short-run asymmetric impact of tourism, financial development, and globalization on ecological footprint in Turkey by using Quantile Autoregressive Distributed Lag model for the period from 1986 to 2018. Further, the EKC hypothesis was also tested. The results show that tourism, globalization, and financial development are positively and significantly associated with the EFP. This means that the increase in these variables will further increase the ecological footprint in Turkey. The U-shaped EKC curve was found to be valid in Turkey. The results also depict nonlinear and asymmetric association among most of the variables. Hence, based on the results, further research directions and practical implications can be suggested.

This study aims to investigate the long-run and causal effects of energy consumption, economic growth, urbanization, and trade openness on CO 2 emissions in Turkey using newly developed econometric techniques. To our best knowledge, there has been no study examining the relationship between CO 2 emissions, energy consumption, trade openness, urbanization, and economic growth in Turkey. Therefore, this study proposes to fill this gap in the literature. In this study, we use time series data covering the years between 1960 and 2015. To capture long-run effects, we used ARDL, FMOLS, and DOLS estimators, while wavelet coherence technique is used to explore causal effects among the variables. Our results reveal that (i) there is a long-run equilibrium relationship between CO 2 emissions and energy consumption, economic growth, urbanization, and trade openness; (ii) in the long-run, CO 2 emission in Turkey is significantly triggered by energy consumption, economic growth, and urbanization; and (iii) the results of the wavelet coherence-based causality test provide supportive evidence to the long-run estimations of this study.

The growth of financial services has been critical in Turkey's pursuit of economic growth objectives throughout the last two decades. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that it has a negative impact on environmental quality. Based on this, in the current paper, the effect of energy use, trade openness, and financial development on the load capacity factor (LCF) is explored for Turkey between 1965 and 2018. In doing so, a series of quantile approaches such as quantile cointegration (QC), quantile-on-quantile regression (QQR), nonparametric causality-in-quantiles (NCQ), and quantile regression (QR) are used. The results generated from the QQR and also validated by the QR reveal that in the majority of the quantiles, primary energy use, trade openness, and financial development impact the LCF negatively. These results suggest that primary energy use, trade openness, and financial development damage environmental quality. Furthermore, the findings gathered from the quantile causality disclose that all primary energy use, trade openness, and financial development can forecast LCF in the majority of the quantiles. Based on the research outcomes, policies, which may aid to solve the damaging environmental effects of the primary energy use, trade openness, and financial sector development in Turkey are recommended., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Climate change has been a topic of significant discourse and debate among scholars and policy makers for several decades. In recent decades, it has become a major problem for the entire human race. Therefore, the present research evaluates the impact of oil consumption, hydro energy use, population density, and economic growth on ecological footprint in Turkey for the period from 1965QI to 2018Q4. This paper uses the BDS test to assess the nonlinearity of the variables in the pre-estimation analysis. The results of the test reveal that non-linearity occurs in all of the variables used in this study. As a consequence, using traditional linear methodologies would produce erroneous results. Our research uses the quantile techniques (quantile cointegration, quantile causality, quantile-on-quantile regression), which are recently developed nonlinear estimate methodologies to assess these associations. The results from the study reveal that oil consumption, hydro energy use, population density, and economic growth contribute to environmental degradation in Turkey in majority of the quantiles. The Granger Causality in Quantiles result also gives credence to the results. The study proposes policy recommendation based on these results., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

This study focuses on uncovering the effect of country risks and renewable energy consumption on environmental quality. In this context, the study examines Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Turkey (MINT) nations; takes economic growth, trade openness, and urbanization into account; includes data from 1990 to 2018; applies cross-sectional autoregressive distributed lag (CS-ARDL) as the main model while common correlated effects mean group (CCEMG) and augmented mean group (AMG) for robustness checks. The empirical results show that (i) economic growth, political risk, urbanization, and trade openness contribute to an increase in ecological footprint; (ii) economic and financial risks as well as renewable energy use have a positive influence on environmental quality; (iii) a unidirectional causality exists from economic risk, financial risk, political risk, economic growth, urbanization, and trade openness to the ecological footprint: (iv) the validity of the EKC hypothesis for the MINT economies is verified; (v) the robustness of CS-ARDL results are validated by CCEMG and AMG approaches. Based on these results, policymakers should promote a sustainable environment to lessen the ecological footprint. Additionally, governments should firmly support investments in green technology as well as economic and financial stability to boost energy efficiency and promote the adoption and usage of energy-saving products., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this paper is to investigate the possible impact of foreign direct investment inflows (FDI) on environmental pollution and to test the validity of the pollution haven hypothesis (PHH) in the case of Turkey over the period 1970-2020. For this purpose, we apply the Fourier approximation to determine stochastic properties of the variables that are FDI, economic growth, energy consumption, and CO 2 emissions used in empirical analysis and the relationship between them. The advantage of the Fourier approximation is capable of capturing possible structural breaks in unknown forms and numbers in the series. According to Fourier KPSS and Fourier FADF tests, all series are stationary at order one, I (1). Fourier Shin and Fourier ADL cointegration tests put forth evidence of the existence of a long-term relationship between CO 2 , GDP, EC, and FDI. FMOLS expanded with Fourier terms suggesting that FDI has relatively little but a positive impact on CO 2 emissions, so we conclude that PHH is valid for Turkey. The other finding reveals that there exists an inverted U-shape relationship between economic growth and CO 2 emissions. According to this result, the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis for Turkey is also supported. Another remark of this paper is that energy consumption significantly increases environmental degradation in Turkey. These findings also are supported by Fourier Toda and Yamamoto causality test. There is a causality relationship from GDP, EC, and FDI to CO2 emissions. These findings offer useful recommendations for policymakers: the FDI, which uses new and clean technology, should be encouraged and implemented energy policies should be energy intensity reducer and efficiency increaser for reducing environmental pollution in Turkey., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

This paper investigates the relationship between income inequality and environmental degradation for the case of Turkey between 1987 and 2017 through the bootstrap causality method that changes over time. The study used the GINI coefficient to denote income inequality and ecological footprint (EFP) to represent environmental degradation. According to the analysis results, a causal relationship has been determined for Turkey from GINI to EFP between 2002 and 2015 and from EFP to GINI between 2002 and 2008. Thanks to the method used in the analysis, it was concluded that GINI-affected EFP positively between 2002 and 2005 and negatively between 2006 and 2015. Between 2002 and 2005, Turkey endured a difficult period of restructuring after two major banking crises in 1999 and 2001. The rapid development, especially in industry and urbanization, caused environmental degradation in this period. Between 2006 and 2015, the central dynamic of Turkey's growth trend was the finance sector, and rapid privatizations were realized. Nevertheless, the income justice improvement in this period negatively impacted the environment due to consumption and production habits. Policymakers should evaluate Turkey in its economic reality and produce policies accordingly. Environmental awareness should be increased in the production and consumption activities of all segments of society, benefiting from the developments in income distribution. The ecological impact of the income redistribution policy, along with its market and social consequences, needs to be evaluated., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

• Ejector cycles achieved higher performance than booster cycle within the gas cooler outlet temperature range of 31 and 50°C. • Multi-ejectors can be applied to ejector cycles with different configurations. • Up to 17% annual energy consumption reduction was found using ejector cycles. • Unit product exergy costs of ejector cycles are up to 28% lower than booster cycle. Restrictions on high-GWP refrigerants have made the use of transcritical CO 2 refrigeration systems widespread. Using transcritical booster refrigeration cycle in warm climates is unsatisfactory due to its high energy consumption. This paper presents theoretical analysis and performance comparison of three different transcritical CO 2 supermarket refrigeration cycle configurations with ejector expansion in Türkiye, which has different climatic regions. Bin-hour data were derived using hourly dry-bulb temperature values for provinces from 7 different regions in Türkiye. The applicability of multi-ejectors to each modeled cycle was also investigated. Annual energy consumption and environmental impact reductions of up to 17% were obtained using ejector expansion cycle compared to booster cycle. Ejector expansion cycles achieved higher performance than booster cycle up to 46% in terms of exergy efficiency at investigated ambient temperatures. Unit product exergy costs of the ejector cycles were found up to 28% lower than booster cycle. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change, one of the biggest threat of global life, is continuously triggered by greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere due to human activities. Carbon dioxide (CO2), one of the most important greenhouse gases, has revealed the concept of carbon footprint, and efforts to take mitigation measures by calculating it have become widespread. With sustainable campus studies, universities, where science and innovations are created, lead other institutions by creating the necessary database for measuring and managing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and calculating the corporate carbon footprint. This study calculated and compared the carbon footprints of Sakarya University Esentepe Campus for 2019 and 2020 when distance education was carried out during the Covid-19 pandemic. Greenhouse gas emissions resulting from activities on campus were calculated and converted to a CO2 equivalent. GHG emission factors and the Tier-1 method of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) were used in the calculations. As a result,the carbon footprint was 13273.38 tCO2e in 2019 and 6338.72 tCO2e in 2020. It was determined that the largest share of carbon emissions was due to the use of electrical energy. The results obtained for both years were compared, and a 47.7% reduction in total emissions was evaluated. In the light of current studies on carbon emission reduction, suggestions and measures need to be taken are summarized in this research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates whether the carbon dioxide (CO2) intensity of GDP matters for environmental degradation in an emerging country, namely, Turkey, over the period of 1990–2018 while controlling economic growth, foreign direct investment, and renewable energy consumption. The present study uses both linear and nonlinear time series estimators, namely, the Gregory and Hansen cointegration test, bounds test, nonlinear autoregressive distributed lag (NARDL) model, fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS), dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS), and canonical cointegrating regressions (CCR), to encapsulate the possible effect of CO2 intensity of GDP, economic growth, foreign direct investment, and renewable energy consumption on environmental degradation in Turkey. The empirical finding of the present study reveals that the CO2 intensity of GDP is an important factor to determine environmental degradation in Turkey and the declining CO2 intensity of GDP reduces environmental degradation. Moreover, economic growth is the primary environmental sustainability factor in Turkey. The result is vital for policymaking and can perhaps be applied to take decisive policy actions to mitigate environmental issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary aim of this paper is to provide fresh evidence by testing the linkage between renewable energy consumption, financial development, and external debts in Turkey, using the Bootstrap ARDL test (McNown et al. 2018). The Bootstrap ARDL test is desired over traditional co-integration tests due to its ability to predict when resolving power and size limitation issues, and its corresponding features, which have not been addressed by traditional co-integration tests. The ARDL testing model is employed to investigate the coefficients amongst the selected variables. The findings from the ARDL test illustrate that there is a positive linkage between renewable consumption and Turkey's financial development. Furthermore, the outcomes illustrate that the coefficient of external debt is negative and significant. The results indicate that policymakers in Turkey must use the growth of the financial sector to minimize environmental degradation by promoting investment in energy and production through renewable energy sources. Furthermore, the research suggested that Turkey's policy-makers should reformulate the external debt policy to reduce the negative influence of external debt on sustainable energy development. This could potentially be achieved by removing any restrictions on international capital flow or barriers on foreign capital and foreign investment. Hence, the findings of this paper provide valuable conclusions and recommendations for Turkey heading to sustainable and green financial sector., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

This paper aims to test the existence of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis using SO2 measurements in Turkish provinces between 2004 and 2019. The existing studies concerning the EKC hypothesis for Turkey either use a country-level analysis or panel data techniques covering provincial data that do not account for the spatial dimension. To account for the spatial dependence and overcome the biases resulting from the existence of such spatial spillovers, this paper combines the traditional panel data methodology with the recent advances in spatial econometrics. Our findings confirm the presence of a non-linear link between regional economic prospects and environmental degradation. However, unlike the core expectations of the EKC hypothesis, our results demonstrate a U-shaped relationship between economic development and SO2 levels. Moreover, these findings are robust to the inclusion of a spatial battery which highlights the existence of regional spillovers. Overall, our results show that the post-2000 epoch calls for a different action plan to mitigate the rising impact of environmental degradation in Turkey., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

This paper presents a carbon footprint investigation of renewable power plants in a city in Turkey. With a total of 71 licensed power plants, this area is significant in terms of energy production resources such as hydroelectric, wind, solar, and lignite. As of April 2021, it has 4401.17 MW of installed power, accounting for 4.87% of Turkey's installed power and ranked third in terms of installed power cities. This city has 18 natural gas power plants, 3 lignite power plants, 33 hydroelectric (stream), 7 hydroelectric (dam) power plants, 2 solar, 2 coal, 2 wind, 1 waste heat, and 3 biomass power plants. However, all production technologies produce CO 2 and other greenhouse gases (GHGs), and emissions might be both direct and indirect. Once harmful gases are released into the atmosphere, they damage the ecosystem and all living things while also contributing to climate change. The Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Climate Agreement were signed to deal with climate change and propose a limitation on carbon emissions. Thus, countries have adopted some strategies to reduce their carbon footprint. For instance, Turkey is aiming to increase the share of domestic and renewable energy in electricity generation to reduce GHG emissions by up to 21% between 2020-2030. In this study, a carbon footprint effect analysis was carried out during electricity generation in a city with abundant renewable energy potential. According to the findings, it was determined that the renewable power plants successfully reduced the carbon footprint of the area as 3,500,794 tons CO 2 , 3,024,120 tons CO 2 , and 1,073,039 tons CO 2 for 2019, 2020, and 2021 (end of April), respectively. Implications: The main aim of this study is to investigate a carbon footprint effect during electricity generation in a region (Kahramanmaraş, Turkey) with abundant renewable energy potential in terms of electricity generation. This area is significant in terms of energy production resources including hydroelectric, wind, solar, and lignite, with a total of 71 licensed power plants. The key contributions of this research study are:(1) The study of carbon footprint savings based on the electricity generation of this city was carried out for the first time in the literature.(2) While generating electricity with renewable energy sources, it has been determined that an average of 3,500,794 tons CO2, 3,024,120 tons CO2, and 1,073,039 tons CO2 carbon footprint savings were accomplished for 2019, 2020, and 2021 (end of April), respectively.(3) This study demonstrated that a city with abundant lignite potential emits a high amount of carbon footprint into the atmosphere while producing energy. By using lignite, 4,462,045 tons CO2, 3,952,348 tons CO2, and 1,140,975 tons CO2 were emitted for 2019, 2020, and 2021 (end of April), respectively.(4) The study includes encouraging research on renewable energy investment in accordance with the Kyoto Protocols and the Paris Agreement for local governments and investors.(5) The study sheds light on the distance Turkey has covered on the way to the 2030 targets in the fight against cli-mate change, regionally.

Given that Turkey has recently committed itself for the first time to reducing its CO2 emissions in the interest of sustainable growth in not only Turkey but also the world as a whole, this paper examines the relationship between energy consumption, CO2 emissions, and economic growth in Turkey for the period 1960–2014. In view of the different findings concerning causality and the character of the relationships between these variables revealed in our review of past studies (in most cases using quite different methods), this paper utilizes several different but related methodological approaches for identifying causal relationships. These include both the Toda and Yamamoto (1995) approach, the Fourier Toda-Yamamoto for Cumulative Frequency approach developed by Nazlioglu et al. (2016), vector error correction model (VECM) methodology, and the asymmetric Granger causality test proposed by Hatemi-J (Empir Econ 43:447–456, Hatemi-j 2012). Our results show that, when we apply the popular Toda-Yamamoto model, causality in these relationships is not confirmed even among any of the relevant variables in Turkey. Yet, when the Fourier Toda-Yamamoto tests for cumulative frequency are employed, we find unidirectional causality running from GDP per capita to emissions of CO2 per capita. Moreover, when we utilize the VECM methodology, the results show that long-run causality exists from GDP per capita and energy to CO2 emissions. When we apply the asymmetric causality tests, the results provide even stronger evidence for a unidirectional causal relationship from GDP per capita to CO2 emissions. As a result, the latter sets of results, based on more realistic conditions, suggest very strongly that, if Turkey is to meet the objectives of its ambitious Climate Change Action Plan commitment to the United Nations to reduce its CO2 per capita emissions relative to its past trends by up to 21% over the coming 2021–2030 decade, it is going to get very serious about the best way to do this as soon as possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last two decades, the tourism and energy sectors have grown rapidly and boosted economic growth, but it is inevitable that these sectors will cause environmental changes. So far, attempts have been made to determine the impact of the tourism and energy sectors on environmental degradation by examining pollution indicators such as CO 2 emissions and ecological footprint. However, these indicators neglect the supply side of the environment. In this context, this paper, for the first time, examines the influence of tourism, income, and energy consumption on the load capacity factor that results from dividing biocapacity by ecological footprint. Thus, the study aims to conduct a comprehensive sustainability analysis for Turkey by assessing the environmental quality on the supply and demand side. For this purpose, the study employs the novel dynamic Autoregressive-Distributed Lag (ARDL) simulations for the period 1965-2017, and the results indicate that tourist arrivals, energy consumption, and economic growth have a negative long run effect on the load capacity factor. Among these factors, only economic growth exerts a significant impact on the load capacity factor in both the short and long run. In the long run, the negative environmental effect of economic growth is less than in the short run. Therefore, the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis is valid for Turkey. Based on the results, some policy recommendations are proposed to help Turkey improve its environmental quality., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

The present research article uses simultaneous equation modelling approach to investigate the three-way linkages between economic growth, energy consumption, and environmental quality in Turkey for the 1970 to 2014 period. Further, the study uses physical capital stock, labour force, manufacturing value added, trade openness, credit to private sector, and urbanisation as control variables. The paper employs generalised method of moments (GMM) technique that ensures consistent and efficient estimates of the long-run relationship. The econometric approach controls for nonstationarity, endogeneity, cross-error correlation, and heteroscedasticity problems. Further, robustness of the results is checked by using three-stage least squares (3SLS) estimator. The statistical results of the paper support the existence of bidirectional causality between energy consumption and economic growth, CO 2 emissions and economic growth, and CO 2 emissions and energy consumption. Moreover, the results indicate existence of a monotonically increasing relationship between CO 2 emissions and economic growth implying non-existence of Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis in Turkey during the sample period. The findings of the present study are of particular interest to policymakers as they help pursue economic policies to achieve sustainable development., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

The pollution haven hypo thesis (PHH) postulates that foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows can increase environmental deterioration in developing countries as multinational firms tend to transfer their dirty industries to these countries. Turkey, as a developing economy, has witnessed intense FDI inflows over the last decades. Within this scope, the goal of this paper is to examine whether the pollution haven hypothesis (PHH) prevails in Turkey within the scope of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis over the period 1970-2016. To that end, the paper employs unit root and cointegration methods based on the nonlinear smooth transition models. The empirical findings of the paper indicate that both hypotheses are valid in Turkey. The findings also imply that environmental quality in Turkey is negatively related to electricity production from renewable energy sources., (© 2021. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Turkey attracted more foreign investment in a period when global foreign direct investment flows experienced a recession due to the USA-China trade war/tension coupled with structural issues within the EU nations. In this paper, the time-varying impact of foreign direct investment on environmental sustainability targets amidst global economic downturn was examined. To achieve this, a time-varying parameter approach, which adequately deals with potential parameter instabilities and nonlinearities, and effectively captures impact variations over time, was employed to investigate the impacts of increased foreign direct investment on environmental degradation amidst global economic downturn for the period 1970-2017. Results showed that the inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI), energy use, urbanization, and real income has led to environmental problems in Turkey. It is thus recommended that the government does the following: (i) enact policies that emphasize green FDI inflows, (ii) enforce tighter environmental policies that deter the immigration of dirty production processes,(iii) engage in mixed and country-specific environmental policies in combating pollution, (iv) ensure domestic investors to adhere strictly to the nation's environmental policies, and (v) enact policies to foster mutual cooperation and understanding between the local and foreign stakeholders in a manner that drives the use of energy-saving technologies in production activities and the use of renewables in place of fossil fuels to control environmental hazards for both the immediate and future generations.

The main aim of this paper is to explore the role of globalization on ecological footprint in Turkey while controlling energy consumption, economic growth, and trade openness. To achieve this objective, we employ dual adjustment approach. The main novelty of the dual adjustment approach is that the method offers another path to the cointegration analysis by relaxing the implicit assumption of the singular adjustment in cointegration analysis. The findings clearly reveal that (i) in the long run, globalization impacts ecological footprint positively and (ii) trade openness reduces ecological footprint in the short run, while ecological footprint is negatively affected by GDP growth in both the short and the long run. In terms of policy implications, this study suggests that in order to improve the environmental quality, Turkey should adopt such policies that encourage energy consumers to shift toward renewable energy. Moreover, the government should take necessary steps to diversify the overall energy mix toward renewable energy.

In this paper, we revisit the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis by using estimations that account for cross-sectional dependency (CSD) and asymmetry effect in 76 countries for the period 1971-2014. Our results lend moderate support to the EKC hypothesis. The country-specific results unfold that a total of 16 out of 76 countries support the EKC hypothesis using CCEMG estimator. Results from AMG reveal that the EKC hypothesis holds in 24 out of 76 countries. It is worth highlighting that 11 countries (Australia, China, Congo Dem. Rep., Costa Rica, Gabon, Hong Kong, India, Korea, Myanmar, Turkey, and Uruguay) exhibit an inverted U-shaped curve regardless of whether CCEMG or AMG is used. The asymmetry analysis using PMG is also able to support the EKC hypothesis. We conclude that the EKC hypothesis does not fit all countries. Policy implication and recommendation in designing appropriate energy and economic policies are provided.

This paper contributes to the growing literature regarding the role of Information and Communication Technologies as well as Innovation on driving the level of carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth in context of the 21st conference of the Parties to the Climate convention (COP21). Drawing the data from 13 selected G-20 countries (including Argentina, Canada, China, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States) during the period of 15 years, our study achieves significant results. First, only five factors impede the carbon emissions namely energy price, foreign direct investment, technology, spending on innovation and trade openness while the remainder of determinants contribute to contamination of environment, including financial development. Second, when it comes to economic growth, information and communication technological and financial development are positive driving factors. Our results do reject the absence of Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) from our sample. Finally, our study empirically suggests that the work of controlling consumption of oil and environmentally friendly process including manufacture-trading in these economies will limit the amount of pollution., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: This paper aims to investigate the environmental impact of various pollutant emissions including carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx) and hydrocarbon (HC) from aircraft exhaust gases during the landing and take-off (LTO) cycles at Eskisehir Hasan Polatkan Airport, Turkey, between 2017 and 2018. Design/methodology/approach: The methodology approach used to calculate the emissions from aircrafts is based on the ICAO databank and the actual data records taken from Presidency of The Republic of Turkey Directorate of Communications (DoC). Findings: The maximum amount of total fuel burnt during the two years is 80.898 and 70.168 tons in 2017 and 2018, respectively, while the average fuel burnt per year from 2017 to 2018 is approximately 369.773 tons. The highest CO, CO2, NOx and HC emissions are found to be 248.3 kg in 2017, 261.380 tons, 1.708 tons and 22.15 kg, during the 2018 year, respectively. Average CO, HC, NOx and CO2 emissions amount per year are observed to be 1.392 tons, 135 kg, 6.909 tons and 1,143 tons, respectively. Considering the average of total emission amount as an environmental factor, as expected, CO2 emissions contributed the most to the total emissions while HC emissions contributed the least to the total emissions from the airport. Practical implications: The study presents the approach in determining the amounts of emissions released into the interannual atmosphere and it explicitly provides researchers and policymakers how to follow emissions from commercial aircraft activities at different airports. Originality/value: The value of the study lies in the transparent computation of the amounts of pollutants by providing the data directly from the first hand-DoC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Controlling CO2 emissions is the common task of all countries to cope with global warming and leave a clean environment. Therefore, in order to develop ecological plans and foresee the necessary measures, forecasting CO2 emissions is an important issue for the governments. Turkey's CO2 emissions have increased significantly due to economic and industrial growth since 2000. Due to Turkey's responsibility in the climate agreements, it needs to explore the CO2 emissions resulting from future investments and policies. In this study, an adaptive grey prediction model was proposed to forecast energy-related CO2 emission of Turkey for 2023 and 2030 based on planned energy investments and policies. The paper has addressed two scenarios that express the current usage level and the planned level where future investments are put into use in order to observe the change of CO2 emissions. The obtained results show that the amount of CO2 emissions in 2030 will decrease significantly thanks to nuclear energy investments according to the current scenario. However, in order to reduce the CO2 emissions of Turkey to desired levels, there is still a need to tighten energy policies and continue emission-free energy investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to explore the impact of real interest rates (RIN), income, trade, foreign direct investment (FDI), and energy consumption on Turkey's carbon dioxide emissions (CO 2 ) over the period from 1980 to 2014. This study differs from the existing literature by introducing a new discussion in the determination of environmental degradation, namely real interest rate. Hatemi-J (HJ) cointegration with two structural breaks and the newly developed Bayer-Hanck (BH) combined cointegration tests are used to enhance and support the robustness of the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bounds test. The Granger causality test within the vector error correction model (VECM) is employed to examine the causality direction among the variables in both the short and long run. The empirical results demonstrate that RIN negatively effects CO 2 emissions. This impact is also supported through energy, income, and FDI channels. It is suggested that policy makers should promote the stability of the real interest rates channel to reduce CO 2 emissions and encourage the renewable energy investment through the production of electricity using renewable sources.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the main determinant to the process of global warming among other greenhouse gases (GHGs). As being responsible for the largest part of the CO2 emissions from industrial activities, the cement sector has an important position for Turkey on the path to achieving CO2 reduction targets. By referencing the relationship between cement industry and CO2 emissions based upon this sector, we aim to analyze environmental efficiency of the Turkish cement industry at firm level and attempt to reveal a comparison study under both output-oriented and non-oriented approaches with the aid of radial and non-radial Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) models: (i) the output-oriented BCC model; (ii) the output-oriented slack-based measures (SBM) model; (iii) the non-oriented SBM model; and (iv) the non-oriented super-efficiency SBM model. In this context, CO2 emission is considered an undesirable output and relative efficiency of 51 integrated cement factories operating in Turkey for the year 2016 is evaluated. Within the scope of this paper, efficiency scores, reference sets and target values are also determined and a list of measures are proposed. According to the results, only 15.7% of all integrated cement factories are identified as being relatively efficient in all models and a clear imbalance among cement factories in terms of environmental efficiency is determined. Moreover, it is concluded that the output-oriented BCC, output-oriented SBM, and non-oriented SBM models are highly correlated and monotonically related in the presence of undesirable output. The empirical findings also suggest that up to 5.13% CO2 emissions saving can be achieved by taking the necessary precautions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the impacts of (non-renewable and renewable) energy consumption and trade on environmental pollution in an environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) setting in Turkey for the 1965–2016 period.Design/methodology/approach Besides conventionally used unit root tests, Zivot–Andrews unit-root test is also employed to account for a possible structural break. To investigate the interrelationships among the variables, the autoregressive distributed lag and the vector error correction methodologies are employed.Findings The results verify the EKC hypothesis. Moreover, increases in trade and non-renewable energy consumption rise carbon emissions in long run, while renewable energy consumption reduces it in both short- and long-run. The causality analysis reveals that there are bi-directional long-run causalities between non-renewable energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions, and between trade and carbon dioxide emissions. Additionally, the neutrality hypothesis is valid for the renewable energy consumption-income nexus in both short- and long-run. For the non-renewable energy consumption-income nexus, the neutrality hypothesis holds only in short-run and the conservation hypothesis holds only in long-run.Originality/value This is the first study which incorporates both renewable energy consumption and trade into its environmental pollution model for Turkey. Moreover, by investigating short- and long-run causalities among the employed variables, more robust policy implications are put forward. Lastly, this study employs a longer sample period and considers a structural break in its models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Experiment at upper-temperature limit for CO 2 sequestration in basalt. • CO 2 sequestration experiment in metasedimentary rocks. • PHREEQC modeling compared to experimental results. • Numerical models might overestimate CO 2 sequestration at high temperatures. The potential for in-situ CO 2 sequestration was analyzed experimentally for one basaltic hyaloclastite sample from the Nesjavellir geothermal reservoir in Iceland and three metasedimentary rock samples from the Kızıldere geothermal field in Turkey. Based on batch reaction experiments, this paper demonstrates the interaction between a CO 2 gas-charged fluid and rock samples from these reservoirs. The experiments were conducted at 260 °C and 0.8 MPa, and 105 °C and 17 MPa for the basaltic and metasedimentary rocks, respectively. The experimental results indicate that CO 2 sequestration within the glassy basaltic rocks is hampered by zeolite, chlorite, and anhydrite, which compete with carbonate minerals to uptake divalent cations at the P-T conditions applied. In contrast, the carbonation process for the metasedimentary rocks is inhibited by their mineralogical composition. Generally, these rocks are less reactive and provide an insufficient supply of divalent cations. The batch reactor experiments were numerically simulated with the PHREEQC geochemical modeling program. The simulations indicate that CO 2 sequestration is feasible at the tested P-T conditions, provided that silicate and SO 4 mineralization is suppressed for the basaltic rocks and that there is an effective source of divalent cations for the metasedimentary rocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maritime transportation is a major source of climate change and air pollution. Shipping emissions cause severe impacts on health and environment. These effects of emissions are emerged especially in territorial waters, inland seas, canals, straits, bays, and port regions. In this paper, exhaust gas emissions from ships in Izmir Port, which is one of the main ports in Turkey, are calculated by the ship activity-based methodology. Total emissions from ships in the port is estimated as 1923 ton y⁻¹ for NO(x), 1405 ton y⁻¹ for SO₂, 82753 ton y⁻¹ for CO₂, ton y⁻¹ for HC, and 165 ton y⁻¹ for PM in the year 2007. These emissions are classified regarding operation modes and types of ships. The results are compared with the other studies including amounts of exhaust pollutants generated by ships. According to the findings, it is clear that the ships calling the Izmir Port are important air polluting causes of the Izmir city and its surroundings.

In this paper, effect of electricity consumption, growth and trade openness on CO2 emission in Turkey between 1970-2014 was analyzed. As an econometric method, ARDL (Auto Regressive Distributed Lag Model) bounds test approach was applied. The increase in electricity consumption, GDP and trade openness by 1% increases carbon dioxide emission by 0.15%, 0.60%, 0.17%, respectively. Error correction coefficient is negative and statistically meaningful. The impact of the variables on carbon dioxide emission clearly show that measures to be taken on environmental pollution in Turkey have become mandatory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to examine the impact of income distribution on environmental pollution for the period of 1990- 2015 in Turkey. For this purpose, the relationship between real income, energy intensity, income inequality and carbon dioxide emissions are investigated with ARDL bound test and bootstrap causality method. In addition, three empirical model are constructed to observe the relative effects of the value added of industry sector, manufacturing sector and service sector on environmental pollution. The results reveal that increasing income level and energy intensity increases environmental pollution both for the short and the long-run. In addition, it is concluded that increasing income inequality deteriorates the environmental quality in the short-run while inequality reduces the environmental pollution in the long-run. Moreover, increasing industrial value-added increases carbon dioxide emissions while increasing the value added of service sector reduces the pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxic gases evolving from the soil in urbanized peatland regions constitute a serious hazard since buildings may be subject to the direct ingress of volatiles into the structures. Peat formed in swamp and rarely exposed to subaerial conditions has been associated with the development of the folded foreland of the Quaternary Kayseri pull-apart basin. The peat deposit is extensively urbanized but so far no studies have evaluated the extent of the ground gas hazard. In this paper, the geology, petrography and chemical variation of the Kayseri peat deposit have been studied in order to predict the public health risk from the land gases' behaviour, especially in soil gases. The main volatile species detected are methane (CH), hydrogen sulphide (HS) and carbon dioxide (CO), all of which are highly toxic. The primary means of gas entry is directly from the ground through the floors, walls, and especially subsurface telephone cable pipes. Indoor vents emit 1000-70,000 ppm CH, 330-49,000 ppm CO and 3.8-6.5 ppm HS in soil and subsurface pipes; concentrations high enough to present an acute respiratory hazard to persons close to the vents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

World primary energy demand increases with increases in population and economic development. Within the last 25 yr, the total energy consumption has almost doubled. For the purpose of meeting this demand, fossil energy sources are used and various pollutants are generated. CO2 is also one of these gases, which cannot be removed like other pollutants, and it causes greenhouse effect and climate change. Reducing the CO2 emission is very important because of the environmental concerns and regulations, especially the Kyoto Protocol. This paper reviews the estimated world carbon emissions, Turkey's situation in electrical energy production, emission amounts estimated until the year 2020 and emission factors for dust, SO2, NOx and CO2. The estimated results show that CO2 emissions from thermal power plants in Turkey will make about 0.66 % of the global CO2 emissions in 2020. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of sick building syndrome (SBS), and its relationship with indoor environmental quality in hospital settings. This cross-sectional study was carried out on 300 hospital staff in Sivas. MM 040 NA Hospital questionnaire was applied. In the hospital indoor environments, air quality (carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), methane (CH4), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), nitrogen oxides (NOx)), lighting, noise, respirable dust and thermal comfort measurements were made. The prevalence of SBS was determined as 64.7–74.1% in the hospitals. It was found that the risk of SBS was 4.31 times higher for those who complained about variable room temperature and 3.11 times higher for those who complained about noise, and decreased 1.01 times with the increase in lighting level. In order to minimize the risk of SBS, it is thought that all healthcare administrators should be informed about SBS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]