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Abstract: The broad objective of this study was to develop CO2, PM, SOx, CO, NOx, VOC, NH3 and N2O emission inventory of organic and inorganic chemicals, mineral products, metallurgical, petroleum refining, wood products, food industries of Turkey for 2010 for both co]ntrolled and uncontrolled conditions. In this study, industries were investigated in 7 main categories and 53 sub-sectors and a representative number of pollutants per sub-sector were considered. Each industry was evaluated in terms of emitted emissions only from industrial processes, and fuel combustion activities were excluded (except cement industry). The study employed an approach designed in four stages; identification of key categories; activity data & emission factor search; emission factor analyzing; calculation of emissions. Emission factor analyzing required aggregate and firm analysis of sectors and sub-sectors and deeper insights into underlying specific production methods used in the industry to decide on the most representative emission factor. Industry specific abatement technologies were considered by using open-source documents and industry specific reports. Regarding results of this study, mineral industry and iron & steel industry were determined as important contributors of industrial emissions in Turkey in 2010. Respectively, organic chemicals, petroleum refining, and pulp & paper industries had serious contributions to Turkey's air pollutant emission inventory from industrial processes. The results showed that calculated CO2 emissions for year 2010 was 55,124,263t, also other emissions were 48,853t PM, 24,533t SOx, 79,943t NOx, 31,908t VOC, 454t NH3 and 2264t N2O under controlled conditions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This study uses the output volatility–augmented environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) model to determine the dynamic short- and long-term impacts of the volatility of economic growth (VOL) on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in Turkey from 1980 to 2015. The results of the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach indicate that there is a long-run relationship between CO2, per capita real GDP, per capita energy use, and VOL. The coefficients obtained from the ARDL estimation indicate that economic growth and energy use increase CO2 emissions, while VOL decreases CO2 emissions in the long run. Moreover, the coefficients obtained from the ARDL error correction model show that VOL decreases CO2 emissions in the short run, as well. We also find that the EKC is valid in Turkey. This implies for the Turkish case that achieving macro-stability under a "just transition" is key for achieving both economic and environmental benefits from ratifying international agreements such as Paris Agreement and EU Green Deal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper examines the long run and causal relationship issues between economic growth, carbon emissions, energy consumption and employment ratio in Turkey by using autoregressive distributed lag bounds testing approach of cointegration. Empirical results for Turkey over the period 1968–2005 suggest an evidence of a long-run relationship between the variables at 5% significance level in Turkey. The estimated income elasticity of carbon emissions per capita is −0.606 and the income elasticity of energy consumption per capita is 1.375. Results for the existence and direction of Granger causality show that neither carbon emissions per capita nor energy consumption per capita cause real GDP per capita, but employment ratio causes real GDP per capita in the short run. In addition, EKC hypothesis at causal framework by using a linear logarithmic model is not valid in Turkish case. The overall results indicates that energy conservation policies, such as rationing energy consumption and controlling carbon dioxide emissions, are likely to have no adverse effect on the real output growth of Turkey. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Bati Raman field, which is the largest oil field in Turkey, yielded 5% recovery factor of which 3% was due to CO2 flooding commenced in 1986 over the last 47 years. The recent steady decline in production entails the implementation of new short- and long-term development plans and this paper summarizes these efforts. Short term plans include the continuation of the CO2 project in the areas where it is still viable and the improvement of the WAG process by adding chemicals into water injected for a better sweep (or displacement). For the latter, potential chemicals (surfactants and alkalis) were tested for wettability alteration and IFT reduction and the best performing ones were determined for the field pilot after an economic analysis. In addition, the possibility of steam injection into the field was evaluated for the long run. Due to extreme heterogeneity and fractured structure, crestal steam injection that uses steam as heating, rather than a displacement agent, was proposed. An analytical study for the optimization of steam injection was provided. To determine the locations for the above listed processes, an extensive reservoir characterization study was performed. Using well recorded primary (1961–1986) and CO2 production data (1986–2007), fracture swarms were mapped and highly–vertically–fractured areas (typically the crest) were determined for potential steam injection. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The Bati Raman field is the largest oil field in Turkey and contains approximately 1.85 billion bbl of oil initially in place. The oil is heavy (12°API), with high viscosity and low solution-gas content. Primary recovery was less than 2% of oil originally in place (OOIP). Over the period of primary recovery (1961-86), the reservoir underwent extensive pressure depletion from 1,800 psig to as low as 400 psig in some regions, resulting in a production decline from 9,000 to 1,600 STB/D. In March 1986, a carbon-dioxide (CO2)-injection pilot in a 1,200-acre area containing 33 wells was initiated in the western portion of the field. The gas-injection was initially cyclic. In 1988, the gas injection scheme was converted to a CO2-flood process. Later, the process was extended to cover the whole field. A peak daily production rate of 13,000 STB/D was achieved, whereas rate would have been less than 1,600 STB/D without CO2 application. However, the field has undergone a progressive production decline since 1995 to recent levels of approximately 5,500 STB/D. Polymer-gel treatments were carried out to increase the CO2 sweep efficiency. Multilateral- and horizontal-well technology also was applied on a pilot scale to reach the bypassed oil. A wateralternating-gas (WAG) application has been applied extensively in the western part of the field. Current production is 7,000 STB/D. This paper documents more than 25 years of experience of TPAO on the design and operation of this full-field immiscible CO2-injection project conducted in the Bati Raman oil field in Turkey. The objective is to update the current status report, update the reservoir/field problems that TPAO has encountered (unpredictable problems and results), and provide a critical evaluation of the success of the project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper covers the successful pilot field application of polymer gels for reservoir conformance improvement in the ongoing CO2 injection project at Bati Raman heavy-oil field in southeastern Turkey. Bati Raman is a naturally fractured carbonate reservoir in which the heterogeneities and the unfavorable mobility ratios between CO2 and the heavy oil cause inefficient sweep of the reservoir. These conditions prompted the pilot application of a conformance-improvement fracture-plugging (flowing) gel system in three wells in July 2002. Based on injection tests performed in the field, approximate treatment volumes were estimated to be on the order of 10,000 bbl for each well. Volumes actually pumped ranged from approximately 6,500 to 11,000 bbl. All three of the wells showed a gradual increase in injection pressure during treatment, indicating a decrease in injectivity index as treatment progressed. During one treatment, an offset producer experienced changes in fluid level consistent with rapid pressure transmission via the connecting fracture early in the treatment, with later loss of such communication. This behavior provides direct evidence of fracture plugging during treatment (Lane 2002). A mechanistic semianalytical model based on previously published laboratory work (Lane and Seright 2000) obtained a good match with the field data. The rate/pressure data were fed into the model, and effective fracture widths were backcalculated. Comparisons of results with the Formation MicroImager (FMI) log findings are explained. Gel-monitor well responses were scaled based on field data using a Fetkovich type decline-curve analysis. These studies enabled the incorporation of the effect of reservoir heterogeneities on the gel propagation radius so that future geltreatment design parameters could be optimized. Pre and post-treatment CO2 injection pressures and the rates are as shown in Table 1. Sweep efficiency was increased as defined by produced oil/injected gas ratio. The 1-year average post-gel oil rate from 19 offset producers is 720 STB/D, as compared with a pre-gel oil rate of 645 STB/D. The rate of increase from the treatments is thus 75 B/D, or 12%, which indicates a payout time of 12 months. Keeping this enlightened approach and seizing on the key concepts, four more CO2 injector wells were treated in 2004 to follow up on the encouraging results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Canakkale Strait (Dardanelles), is one of two straits that have Turkey with Bosphorus. This strait, which has a length of 38 miles, provides the connection of countries with a coast to the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. 43454 ships pass through the strait annually. According to 2019 data, 45.33% general cargo ship, 21.43% bulk carrier, 21.78% tanker, 6.43% container, 0.65% ro-ro, and 0.61% passenger ship, and 3.77% other type of ship passed. Therefore, by including the Canakkale 1915 bridge which will be completed in 2023, the six most frequent ship types were examined and their emission values were calculated in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aims to introduce a new research topic by investigating the role of banking sector development on Turkey's CO2 emissions for the time period 1980-2014. Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL), Fully Modified-OLS (FMOLS), and Canonical Co-integrating Regression (CCR) models are applied to test the coefficients between the variables. The newly-developed Bayer-Hanck combined co-integration test is used to support the robustness of the ARDL bounds test. The results show that banking sector development led to an increase in CO2 emissions. The improvements in the Turkish banking sector development could lead to increased investment and energy consumption, which would subsequently cause raise in CO2 emissions. Furthermore, the results show that an increase in the RIN would lead to decrease in CO2 emissions. RIN has fundamental repercussions for the economy by either impacting the cost of capital or influencing the availability of credit, which in turn determines the level of savings as well as that of investment in an economy, which may subsequently affect CO2 emissions. It is suggested that policy-makers should use the banking sector development and RIN channels to reduce environmental degradation by introducing monetary policy reforms, while also encouraging energy investment and the production of electricity using renewable sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Denizli Basin in the West Anatolian Extensional Province in western Turkey is well-known for its numerous travertine occurrences. A combined sedimentological, diagenetic and geochemical investigation is executed on the Ece and Faber travertines of the Ballık area, the largest travertine site in the Denizli Basin. The first aim of this study is the reconstruction of a three-dimensional geo-model in combination with a detailed sedimentological description from fabric to lithotype, lithofacies and geobody scale, with a focus on integrating pore-typing. The second aim involves the delineation of the CO2-origin of ancient travertine precipitating waters. Peloidal, phyto and dendritic lithotypes dominate the studied travertines and honeycomb and bacteriform shapes and encrusted bacterial or fungal filaments related to their fabrics suggest a microbial influence. The environment of travertine precipitation evolved from dominantly sub-aqueous, as represented by the sub-horizontal and biostromal reed travertine facies, to dominantly sub-aerial in a thin water film, resulting in the cascade, waterfall and biohermal reed travertine facies. A general progradation of the travertine mound is indicated by the occurrence of stacked waterfall travertines. This results in sigmoidal clinoforms inside a general mound boundary configuration. Strontium and oxygen-carbon isotope signatures of the travertines point to a mixing mechanism of palaeofluids with deeply originated, heavy carbon CO2 with lighter carbon CO2 of shallow origin. These deposits can thus be considered as endogenic travertines. Carbonates of the Lycian Nappes acted as main parent carbon source rocks. The relative contribution of the lighter carbon isotopes is most likely to have originated from organic matter or soil CO2. This study provides a unique three-dimensional insight into the Ballık travertine architecture that potentially can be used as an analogue for subsurface travertine reservoirs worldwide and illustrates the importance of the combined use of δ13C and 87Sr/86Sr signatures in the delineation of the CO2-origin of travertine precipitating waters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As would be expected, the rapid expansion of energy production and consumption has brought with it a wide range of environmental issues at the local, regional, and global levels. With respect to global environmental issues, Turkey's carbon dioxide emissions have grown along with its energy consumption. States have played a leading role in protecting the environment by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. In this regard, renewable energy resources appear to be the one of the most efficient and effective solutions for clean and sustainable energy development in Turkey. Turkey's geographical location has several advantages for extensive use of most of these renewable energy sources. This article presents a review of the energy and environmental policies in Turkey. Over the last few decades, a number of Turkish citizens who live in the eastern part of country have migrated to the western part of the country. This caused some problems in the energy utilization and environmental pollution in the western regions in Turkey. For this reason, in the coming decades, global environmental issues could significantly affect patterns of energy use in Turkey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. The aim of the present study was to estimate gas concentrations in commercial turkey houses by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). 2. The experiment was conducted in 5 buildings of a commercial turkey farm. The measurements of gases were carried out every 3 weeks of the growth cycle. 3. The results demonstrate that ammonia and carbon dioxide are the prevalent gases released during the entire production cycle in turkey houses. The mean concentrations of the above compounds ranged between 4–31 ppm and 220–2058 ppm, respectively. Thiols, nitriles, amines, aldehydes, hydrocarbons and other organic and inorganic compounds also occurred in turkey houses, but they were emitted periodically and their mean concentrations were significantly lower in comparison with CO2and NH3. 4. Lower ventilation ratio and higher moisture of excreta in the first half of the growth period accelerated the release of some gases, whereas gradual faeces and urine accumulation contributed to an increase in the concentration of selected organic compounds. 5. A portable FTIR analyser is a useful device for measuring gas concentrations in commercial turkey farms, and it supports determinations of tolerable emission limits in turkey production. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Utilization of CO2 for enhanced oil recovery and sequestration processes not only reduces greenhouse emissions but also awards economical benefits. Enhancing oil recovery in a sequestration is an optimization process that requires careful analysis. In CO2-enhanced oil recovery the main purpose is to maximize oil recovery with the minimum quantity of CO2 while a maximum amount of CO2 is aimed to store in a sequestration. Kartaltepe field having 32° API gravity oil in a carbonate formation from southeast Turkey has been considered in this study. Reservoir rock and fluid data were evaluated and merged into CMG/STARS simulator. History matching study was done with production data to verify the results of the simulator with field data. From the results of simulation runs, it was realized that CO2 injection can be applied to increase oil recovery, but sequestering of a high amount of CO2 was found to be inappropriate for Kartaltepe field. Therefore, it was decided to focus on oil recovery while CO2 was sequestered within the reservoir. Oil recovery was about 23% of original oil in place in 2006 for the field, it reached to 43% of original oil in place by injecting CO2 after defining production and injection scenarios properly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conclusion: Delivery of a carbon dioxide laser is an effective method and can be used in selected cases of tracheal stenosis. Objectives: To present retrospective experience in tracheal stenosis of 16 patients treated by bronchoscopic delivery of carbon dioxide laser, considering the characteristics of the treated stenosis, surgical procedures performed, and post-operative outcomes and complications. Methods: All demographic and clinical data were collected retrospectively. Chest and neck computed tomography scans were performed to assess the stenosis, including length, location, and glottic involvement. The stenotic area was evaluated endoscopically according to an adapted Meyer and Cotton grading scale. Results: The aetiology of the tracheal stenosis was intubation-related in 14 cases, and idiopathic in two cases. The duration of intubation ranged between 1 hour to 26 days. According to the Myers-Cotton classification, mean stage of stenosis for the study group was 3.3 ± 0.5. Mean length of the stenosis was 23.75 ± 6.95 (range = 15–40) mm. Mean follow-up for the study group was 23.81 ± 7.11 (range = 12–38) months. Postoperative decannulation was achieved in 13 patients (81.3%), and decannulation was not achieved in three patients (18.7%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Variations in the surface air temperatures show an association with the atmospheric CO2 under the hypothesis that warmer temperatures promote increases in plant growth in mid-northern latitudes. Historical daily temperature records at seventy-four weather stations (around 60-yr) in Turkey are used in order to investigate this hypothesis. Separate calculations and analyses are undertaken for monthly and seasonal growing degree-days (GDD). The sequential version of Mann-Kendall rank statistic is applied to demonstrate existence of any possible non-linear trends in accumulated GDDs above 5 °C over the months and seasons. Spatially coherent and statistically significant trends of GDD are shown in some parts of Turkey. The statistically significant trends are negative mostly in summer and autumn seasons over the coastal areas of Turkey. These results strongly agree with the previous studies where weak cooling trends are observed in maximum temperatures over Turkey. They suggest the significant decreases in GDD may lead to long-term decreases in vegetation growth mostly over the coastal regions of Turkey. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]