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Andean lupin (Lupinus mutabilis) seeds are appreciated for their high protein and lipid contents and have potential applications as ingredients in food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. Nevertheless, the information about the seed composition (especially in lipophilic antioxidants) of ecotypes from distinct cropping areas is currently limited. Thus, the aim of the present research was to assess the morphological characteristics, chemical composition, tocopherol and carotenoid contents of the seeds of 33 Andean lupin ecotypes from different Peruvian regions, along with three L. albus, one L. angustifolius and one L. luteus controls. Significant differences were noted among the Andean ecotypes for all analyzed features. The protein, lipid and ash contents were 32.0-46.9, 13.6-18.6 and 2.7-4.4 g/100 g dry matter (DM), respectively. The seeds were rich in tocopherols (172.1-249.8 mg/kg DM; γ-tocopherol was 98% of total tocols) and low in carotenoids (0.69-2.89 mg/kg DM). Debittering increased the tocopherol content (227.0-378.2 mg/kg DM), probably because of the soluble components loss, although the carotenoid concentration remained unchanged. The Andean lupins had higher protein, lipid and tocopherol contents than L. albus and L. angustifolius; the L. luteus values were within the L. mutabilis range. These results suggest that L. mutabilis harbors nutritional characteristics that are well suited to modern food trends.

To assess the effect of enriching wheat cookies with einkorn on pasting properties, physico-chemical characteristics, bioactive components and in vitro starch digestion, five types of cookies with different whole meal einkorn flour content (0%, 30%, 50%, 70% and 100%) were prepared. The cookies with einkorn had larger diameter and were thinner than those with only bread wheat flour. The amount of ash, protein, total polyphenols, antioxidant activity, total carotenoids, and β-glucans increased, while moisture and pH decreased in einkorn-enriched cookies. The in vitro tests showed that starch digestion of 100% einkorn cookies was similar to 100% bread wheat until 120 min, but was lower at 180 min. These results demonstrate that einkorn-enriched cookies have better physico-chemical and nutritional characteristics than plain bread wheat cookies. Their diffusion could provide the consumers a novel cereal-based product with health promoting characteristics.

The continuous increase of pasta consumption is favoured by the availability of new products, manufactured from non-traditional cereals. Einkorn is a diploid relative of durum and bread wheats, appreciated for its high protein, carotenoid and tocol contents, and for its excellent organoleptic characteristics. Aim of this research was to assess its suitability for pasta production and the quality of its products. The dry einkorn pasta differed from durum wheat pasta for most of the traits, including dimensions, carotenoids content, colour and image analysis parameters. During cooking the pasta from einkorn flours was significantly less firm but had lower cooking losses, probably for a better structure of the gluten matrix. Compression-extrusion tests evidenced, at equal cooking times, significant differences between pasta samples. Among einkorns, ID331 and SAL98-32 showed firmness values similar to durum wheat pasta. Pasta manufacturing led to a significant decrease in lutein and a limited increase in heat damage, but cooking did not induce any further changes. Overall, einkorn pasta had similar technological characteristics but better nutritional value than the control durum wheat pasta.

Whole meal flours from several Triticum subspecies and cropped in two different years were scored for carotenoid content as well as for CIE L *, a * and b * coordinates by a colorimeter and a spectrophotometer, and for colour (R, G, B, I), heterogeneity and texture parameters by image analysis to assess the power of the different approaches to discriminate the groups. The results demonstrate that the colour coordinates L * a * b *, and R, G, B, I are not determined by carotenoid content only. However multivariate approaches considering the absorbance spectra or the carotenoid content along with colour coordinates allowed a good separation of species and, in general, of subspecies. On the contrary, the GLMC image data did not lead to a clear discrimination among species and subspecies.

Einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) is a diploid wheat whose kernels are rich in proteins, carotenoids, tocols, phenolic acids, and trace minerals. Our research analyzed the physico‐chemical and nutritional characteristics of einkorn cookies prepared from refined flour of two einkorns (ID1395 and Monlis) and one common wheat (Blasco). The traits analyzed were color, size, and surface texture (Image Analysis); inner texture (Bending and Penetration tests); carotenoids and tocols content and composition; furosine, glucosylisomaltol, and hydroxymethylfurfural as heat damage indices (HPLC). Einkorn cookies were thinner, larger, slightly darker, with smoother surface, and higher breaking resistance than the control cookies. Furthermore, they had more carotenoids (5.0 vs. 2.2 mg/kg DM) and showed less heat damage (188.5 vs. 242.4 mg furosine/100 g protein) than common wheat cookies. Room‐temperature storage under dark in sealed plastic containers led to a decrease in lutein (8%–17%) and furosine (20%) and an increase in hardness, especially in einkorn cookies. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: To satisfy the ever‐increasing interest of the consumers in foods with better nutritional characteristics, the food industry is continuously exploring new formulations. Einkorn is a very promising candidate because of the outstanding composition of its flour. However, little information is available on sweet‐baked goods from einkorn. Our results clearly demonstrate that this wheat is perfect, from both the technological and the composition aspects, for preparing high nutritional value cookies with better nutraceutical properties than standard bread wheat cookies. Therefore, the food industry can directly use einkorn as an input ingredient for sweet‐baked goods using current production methods.

Recent studies on einkorn wheat, an underutilised relative of durum and bread wheat, demonstrated its outstanding nutritional characteristics and fostered a renewed interest for its cultivation. Einkorn is a disease-resistant and thrifty crop, supplying flour with optimal composition even with minimal agronomic management. To understand the role of nitrogen fertilisation on its composition and nutritional quality, a two-year study comparing five different nitrogen treatments (0 kg/ha, 40 and 80 kg/ha at tillering, 40 and 80 kg/ha at heading) was performed on three einkorn accessions. The two years had similar temperatures but very different rainfall profiles, so the climate had a strong effect on most traits, including thousand kernels weight, Falling number, viscoamylographic parameters, carotenoid and phenolic acid concentration. On the other hand, nitrogen fertilisation improved protein content, SDS sedimentation volume and phenolic acids concentration. Carotenoids synthesis was slightly limited with increasing fertilisation; a similar, but less evident, effect was present for tocols. The results demonstrate that einkorn wheat does not require abundant nitrogen fertilisation to provide flour with good nutritional and technological characteristics.

Puffed cereals are widely used in the preparation of breakfast products, snacks and ready-to-eat foods. Puffing leads to deep structural, chemical and nutritional modifications of the grains but the information available about the end-product quality is still scant. Aim of this research was to assess the effect of gun-puffing on several technological characteristics and chemical composition of einkorn and bread wheat kernels. A survey of some commercial puffed cereals was also performed. Bread wheat and einkorn kernels were treated in a lab gun-puffing system of a private food industry under two different processing conditions. The raw and puffed kernels were then assessed for technological (1000 kernel weight, expansion rate, test weight, water uptake, water absorption and solubility index, pasting properties, surface area, colour) and compositional (starch, protein, carotenoid and tocol content) traits. Puffing induced significant changes in most technological and chemical characteristics of einkorn and bread wheat kernels. A drastic loss of carotenoids (on average, −54%), but not of tocols, was observed. While bread wheat and einkorn differed for several traits, the two puffing treatments generally gave similar results. Most of the technological and compositional properties of commercially-available puffed cereals were species-related.

The increasing interest of consumers for foods with enhanced nutritional characteristics has spurred the industry to look for unconventional raw materials and novel products. Aim of this research was to evaluate pasta prepared from different T. monococcum flours and mixtures: refined flour (EF), refined flour from pregerminated kernels (EPG), whole meal flour from decorticated kernels (EDK), refined flour plus egg albumen (EA) and refined flour plus whole egg (EW); pasta from durum wheat semolina (DS) was the control. Pasta colour was not modified by the addition of egg white or pregerminated flour, while decorticated flour decreased brightness and whole egg increased brightness and yellow component. All einkorn samples showed higher protein and carotenoid content, and lower heat damage than DS. The EDK pasta had more carotenoid, lipid and furosine than EF pasta; EPG instead had slightly less proteins, more reducing sugars and higher heat damage. The addition of egg products increased protein content and, for whole egg, lipids and carotenoids concentration, while maintaining within acceptable levels the heat damage. All einkorn pastas had good cooking characteristics; compared to whole egg, the albumen gave an optimal texture pasta, while delivering a cholesterol-free product with low lipid content.

Einkorn (Triticum monococcum L. subsp. monococcum) is a hulled wheat that, after being the main staple of early farmers for many thousands of years, was replaced by the more productive durum and bread wheat during the Bronze Age. The whole-meal flour is rich in protein, lipids (mostly unsaturated fatty acids), microelements, and antioxidants such as carotenoids and tocols; the refined flour still retains most of the protein and antioxidant compounds. Einkorn is not safe for celiacs, but it might be beneficial for patients with allergies or gluten sensitivity. Although only few genotypes are suitable for bread-making, all show outstanding qualities for the manufacturing of other bakery products. Current trends toward the consumption of fortified and functional foods suggest that this cereal may still play a significant role in human consumption.

YILMAZ, Volkan Arif/0000-0001-5039-4026; Brandolini, Andrea/0000-0002-4552-4081; Hidalgo, Alyssa/0000-0002-3311-814X WOS: 000358630800024 The aims of this research were: a) to analyse the phenolic acid composition and the total polyphenol content of several wild, feral and domesticated Triticum accessions; b) to determine their antioxidant activity by means of diverse spectrophotometric assays (DPPH, FRAP, ABTS and DMPD); and c) to evaluate the effect of different solvents on bioactive compounds extraction and antioxidant assessment. Conjugated and bound phenolic acids were determined by HPLC, while total polyphenol content and antioxidant activity were assessed spectrophotometrically on the extracts obtained with different solvents from whole meal flours. The wild wheats showed the highest phenolic acids, total polyphenol content and antioxidant activity. Among the antioxidant activity assessment methods tested, DPPH, FRAP and ABTS provided similar discrimination of the samples, while DMPD gave different outcomes. The use of several extraction solvents allowed a better characterisation of the antioxidant activity: acidified methanol and water saturated butanol are the most effective solvents for hydrophilic (phenolic acids and anthocyanins) and hydrophilic as well as lipophilic (carotenoids and tocols) antioxidants, respectively. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The diploid wild wheats Triticum monococcum ssp. thaoudar and Triticum urartu are the direct ancestors of all domesticated wheats, but almost nothing is known about the chemical composition of their kernels. Aim of this research was to assess their content in several compositional traits and to compare it with that of domesticated wheats. To this end, fifteen diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid accessions belonging to different Triticum species were tested for 1000 kernel weight, protein, ash and starch content, β-amylase activity, carotenoid, tocol, anthocyanin and polyphenol concentration. The wild einkorns had high protein (21.7 ± 0.74 g/100 g), ash (3.0 ± 0.06 g/100 g), tocol (75.1 ± 3.95 mg/kg), carotenoid (8.0 ± 0.91 mg/kg) and anthocyanin (43.0 ± 4.66 mg/kg) content, and low β-amylase activity (20.2 ± 0.84 B3U/g). T. urartu instead coupled high protein (28.0 ± 0.07 g/100 g), ash (3.3 ± 0.03 g/100 g) and tocol (63.9 ± 2.91 g/100 g) content with low carotenoid (2.7 ± 0.02 g/100 g) and high β-amylase (57.7 ± 0.11 g/100 g) levels. These results fit well with those observed in the derived wheats, i.e. domesticated and feral einkorn on one side and emmer, durum, spelt and bread wheat on the other. Several positive nutritional traits present in the diploid wild species were not lost during the transition from wild to domesticated forms.

Carotenoids, tocols, phenolic acids and antioxidant capacity were studied during in vitro digestion of water biscuits (WB) from bread wheat, einkorn and einkorn-pseudocereals. Antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of digestates were also measured using a 70% Caco2/30% HT-29 human intestinal co-culture layer. Antioxidant profiles differed among WB formulations. Only hydrophilic molecules were solubilised by gastric digestion. After intestinal digestion, 77% carotenoids and 67% tocols were released. Soluble-conjugated phenolic acids increased (30%) and insoluble-bound forms decreased (17%), suggesting partial conversion from bound to conjugated form. After intestinal digestion, antioxidant capacity increased regardless of type and amount of antioxidants in undigested or digested WB. All WB, especially those with quinoa flour, reduced the AAPH pro-oxidant capacity in co-culture cells. These results highlight the potential health benefits of underutilized crops and the need for in vitro or in vivo models to better address potential bioactivity at intestinal and target organs level.

Einkorn, durum wheat and Kamut® are rich of carotenoids, antioxidants with beneficial effects on human health. In the present study the effect of flour granule size on carotenoid content and colour was assessed; furthermore, the suitability of two colorimeters (Minolta Chroma meter CR-210 and Minolta Chroma meter II Reflectance), a spectrophotometer (Jasco V-650 with integrating sphere) and image analysis to define colour and determine carotenoid concentration in wheat flours of different granulometry was tested. Carotenoid content did not vary across flours of diverse size, except in the finest einkorn fraction (

The nutritional value of cereal kernels is markedly improved by the germination process. Aim of this study was to evaluate protein, ash, sugars, heat damage (furosine, hydroxymethylfurfural, glucosylisomaltol), carotenoids, tocols, phenolics and antioxidant capacity (FRAP, ABTS, DPPH, reducing power, superoxide anion, β-carotene bleaching tests) of water biscuits enriched with increasing quantities (0, 5, 10 and 20%) of sprouted bread wheat or barley. The wholemeals from sprouted wheat and barley showed high concentrations of total carotenoids (82.6 and 119.7 mg/kg, respectively), tocols (53.4 and 88.2 mg/kg), conjugated (368.0 and 564.2 mg/kg) and bound (1811.6 and 3022.0 mg/kg) phenolics. Therefore, the enriched water biscuits had higher carotenoids, tocols and phenolics content, heat damage and antioxidant capacity than the controls. The greatest increase was recorded in barley-enriched samples. The addition of 15%–20% sprouted wheat or 5%–10% sprouted barley improved the nutritional quality of water biscuits while limiting heat damage.

The hulled wheat einkorn (Triticum monococcum L. ssp. monococcum), a staple food of early farmers for many thousand years, today is cropped only in small areas of the Mediterranean region and continental Europe. Increasing attention to the nutritional quality of foods has fostered renewed interest in this low-impact crop. The reappraisal of einkorn quality evidenced that this ancient wheat has some dietary advantages over polyploid wheats. Einkorn wholemeal is poor in dietary fibre but rich in proteins, lipids (mostly unsaturated fatty acids), fructans and trace elements (including zinc and iron). The good concentration of several antioxidant compounds (carotenoids, tocols, conjugated polyphenols, alkylresorcinols and phytosterols) and low β-amylase and lipoxygenase activities (which limit antioxidant degradation during food processing) contribute to the excellent nutritional properties of its flour, superior to those of other wheats. Conversely, einkorn has relatively low bound polyphenol content and high polyphenol oxidase activity. In spite of eliciting weaker toxic reactions than other Triticum species, einkorn is not suitable for coeliacs. Current trends towards the consumption of functional foods suggest that this cereal may still play a significant role in human consumption, especially in the development of new or special foods with superior nutritional quality.

The loss of carotenoids content during food processing was investigated during the production of bread, water biscuits and pasta from refined flours of einkorn, bread and, for pasta only, durum wheat semolina. Total carotenoids content decreased throughout the processing stages. For bread and water biscuits, kneading led to limited degradation (on average, 15% and 12%, respectively), bread leavening had almost negligible effects (3%), while baking had a marked influence on carotenoids loss in bread crust and water biscuits (29% and 19%, respectively) but not in bread crumb (3%). In contrast, in pasta the longer kneading-extrusion phase determined relevant losses (48%), while the drying step did not induce significant changes. During kneading, Triticum monococcum consistently showed lesser percentage degradation, probably because of the lower lipoxygenase activity of its flour. Overall, manufacturing led to average carotenoid losses of 21%, 47%, 31% and 49% for bread crumb, bread crust, water biscuits and pasta, respectively. Notwithstanding the significant decrease, einkorn still supplied considerably more carotenoids than durum and bread wheats in the end products, characterised by an attractive deep yellow colour.

To evaluate the effect of genotype, year, and location on protein, lipid, tocol, and lutein content and on fatty acids composition of wholemeal flour, five einkorns (Triticum monococcum L. ssp. monococcum) and one control bread wheat were cropped in Italy for two years in four different locations. Genotype and year exerted major effects on protein, tocotrienol, and lutein contents, while tocopherol and lipid contents were influenced only by the genotype. The concentrations of linoleic, oleic, and palmitic acids (the most abundant among the 14 fatty acids identified), as well as of saturated (SFA), monosaturated (MUFA), and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids, differed between einkorns and control and, to some extent, years were constant across locations. Notwithstanding the environmental variation, all einkorns consistently showed higher protein (on average, +59%), lipid (+50%), tocotrienol (+88%), total tocol (+46%), lutein (+483%), and MUFA (+53%) content, along with lower SFA (-21%) and PUFA (-8%) than the bread wheat control.

Einkorn ( Triticum monococcum ssp. monococcum ) is an underutilised wheat with high protein, lutein and tocols content, particularly suited for baby and specialty foods. To study the influence of kernel steaming treatments on chemical and technological properties, seeds of five einkorn accessions and one bread wheat control (cv. Blasco) underwent different steaming conditions, and their wholemeal flours were compared for ash, protein, lutein, tocols and α-amylase content, SDS sedimentation volume and gelatinisation parameters. Furosine, a heat damage marker, was measured as well. The treatments significantly influenced most of the parameters. In particular, lutein, tocols and α-amylase diminished after steaming; SDS sedimentation volumes and most gelatinisation parameters also decreased, whereas gelatinisation temperatures and furosine contents increased. The changes were stronger under more drastic steaming conditions, although treatment × genotype influence was sometimes detected. Steaming induced migration of lutein and tocopherols from the bran and germ fractions to the kernel endosperm.

To evaluate the effect of storage temperature, the degradation kinetics of carotenoids in wholemeal and white flour of einkorn cv. Monlis and bread wheat cv. Serio, stored at -20, 5, 20, 30, and 38 degrees C, was assessed by normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. In Monlis, the carotenoids content (8.1 and 9.8 mg/kg for wholemeal and white flour, respectively) was 8-fold higher than in Serio (1.0 and 1.1 mg/kg). Only lutein and zeaxanthin were detected in bread wheat, while significant quantities of (alpha and beta)-carotene and beta-cryptoxanthin were observed in einkorn. Carotenoids degradation was influenced by temperature and time, following first-order kinetics. The degradation rate was similar in wholemeal and white flour; however, loss of lutein and total carotenoids was faster in Serio than in Monlis. The activation energy E(a) ranged from 35.2 to 52.5 kJ/mol. Temperatures not exceeding 20 degrees C better preserve carotenoids content and are recommended for long-term storage.

Einkorn (Triticum monococcum L. subsp. monococcum) is an ancient wheat appreciated for its high proteins, carotenoids and tocols content. To better understand its potential for human consumption and food preparation, composition and pasting properties of 65 einkorn accessions, of different geographical origin but cultivated at S. Angelo Lodigiano (Italy), were evaluated. Eight Triticum turgidum and seven Triticum aestivum cultivars, belonging to different subspecies, were assessed as controls. On average, the einkorn samples had light seeds (25.0 mg/kernel), extra-soft texture (238.3 g), high protein content (18.2%), high ash content (2.35%), low SDS sedimentation volume (25.6 ml), high carotenoids (8.36 μg/g) and high yellow pigments (8.46 μg/g). The pasting parameters studied were peak viscosity (average: 2426 cP), breakdown (765 cP), final viscosity (2788 cP) and setback (1126 cP). Total amylose (25.7%) and total starch (65.5%) were also measured. Significant differences from the controls and a broad variation for all the traits analysed were observed. Einkorns from diverse geographical areas showed different mean values for all characters, apart from ash content. The good pasting properties, coupled with high proteins and carotenoids content, suggest that einkorn is particularly suited for the production of baby and specialty foods.

The distribution of protein, ash, lutein, tocopherols and tocotrienols in the germ, bran and endosperm portions was studied in seeds of two einkorn accessions and one bread wheat. The two einkorns showed a higher content of most compounds, but the distribution within the kernel was similar in both species. The germ fraction showed the highest concentration of protein, lutein, α-tocopherol, β-tocopherol and total tocols. Ash, α-tocotrienol and β-tocotrienol levels were highest in the bran fraction, although significant quantities were detected also in the germ and, for tocotrienols, in the flour. Notwithstanding the lower concentrations, the endosperm contributed most protein and lutein, as well as one-third of tocotrienols to the whole kernel; this suggests that, after the milling process, the white flour still retains most of the nutritional value of the whole kernel.

The nutritional properties of einkorn and its potential as a donor of useful traits to cultivated wheat prompted the survey of carotenoid and tocol content of 54 accessions of einkorn originating from different eco-geographical areas, by HPLC analysis. Eight Triticum turgidum and seven Triticum aestivum cultivars were analysed in parallel. Carotenoids, mostly lutein, averaged 8.41 μg/g dm, 2–4 times more than non-einkorn wheats, with a maximum of 13.4 μg/g dm. Several accessions showed significant amounts of carotenes (above 25% of total carotenoids), sometimes together with high lutein contents. Tocols averaged 77.96 μg/g dm, significantly exceeding the non-einkorn wheats, with a maximum of 115.85 μg/g dm. The most abundant tocol was β -tocotrienol (48.22 μg/g dm), followed by α -tocotrienol (12.77 μg/g dm), α -tocopherol (12.18 μg/g dm) and β -tocopherol (4.79 μg/g dm); the mean tocotrienol/tocopherol ratio was 3.68. Einkorns from different geographical areas had diverse average total carotenoid and tocol values; two geographic gradients were observed, possibly reflecting the original routes of spread of einkorn into Europe from the Middle East.

The present research assessed the radical scavenging activity against the synthetic 2,2-diphenyl-1-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)hydrazyl radical of the water-saturated 1-butanol extracts of wholemeal flour from 63 Triticum monococcum accessions, which originated from different eco-geographical areas. On average, T. monococcum had higher radical scavenging activity than T. turgidum and T. aestivum species, which served as controls (0.90, 0.64 and 0.70 mmol TE/kg DM, for T. monococcum, T. turgidum and T. aestivum , respectively). A significant correlation between radical scavenging activity and tocol content was observed, while no correlation existed with soluble phenolics and carotenoid contents.