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Cyanopyridines and cyanophenylpyridines were investigated as anolytes for nonaqueous redox flow batteries (RFBs). The three isomers of cyanopyridine are reduced at potentials of -2.2 V or lower vs. ferrocene

This Article describes the development of 1,2-bis(diisopropylamino)-3-cyclopropenylium-functionalized (DAC-functionalized) benzene derivatives as high-potential catholytes for non-aqueous redox flow batteries. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations predict that the oxidation potentials (in CH3CN) of various DAC-benzene derivatives will range from +0.96 to +1.64 V vs Fc+/0, depending upon the substituents on the benzene ring. To test these predictions, a set of eight DAC-arene derivatives were synthesized and evaluated electrochemically. The molecule 1-DAC-4-tert-butyl-2-methoxy-5-pentafluoropropoxybenzene was found to offer the optimal balance of high redox potential (E1/2 = +1.19 V vs Fc+/0) and charge-discharge cycling stability (with 92% capacity retention over 116 h of cycling at 0.3 M concentration in a symmetrical flow cell). This optimal derivative was successfully deployed as a catholyte in a non-aqueous redox flow cell with butyl viologen as the anolyte to yield a 2.0 V battery.

We describe the nonaqueous redox-matched flow battery (RMFB), where charge is stored on redox-active moieties covalently tethered to non-circulating, insoluble polymer beads and charge is transferred between the electrodes and the beads via soluble mediators with redox potentials matched to the active moieties on the beads. The RMFB reported herein uses ferrocene and viologen derivatives bound to crosslinked polystyrene beads. Charge storage in the beads leads to a high (approximately 1.0-1.7 M) effective concentration of active material in the reservoirs while preventing crossover of that material. The relatively low concentration of soluble mediators (15 mM) eliminates the need for high-solubility molecules to create high energy density batteries. Nernstian redox exchange between the beads and redox-matched mediators was fast relative to the cycle time of the RMFB. This approach is generalizable to many different redox-active moieties via attachment to the versatile Merrifield resin.

This report describes the design of diaminocyclopropenium-phenothiazine hybrid catholytes for non-aqueous redox flow batteries. The molecules are synthesized in a rapid and modular fashion by appending a diaminocyclopropenium (DAC) substituent to the nitrogen of the phenothiazine. Combining a versatile C-N coupling protocol (which provides access to diverse derivatives) with computation and structure-property analysis enabled the identification of a catholyte that displays stable two-electron cycling at potentials of 0.64 and 1.00 V vs. Fc/Fc+ as well as high solubility in all oxidation states (≥0.45 M in TBAPF6 /MeCN). This catholyte was deployed in a high energy density two-electron RFB, exhibiting >90 % capacity retention over 266 hours of flow cell cycling at >0.5 M electron concentration.

High redox potential, two-electron organic catholytes for nonaqueous redox flow batteries were developed by appending diaminocyclopropenium (DAC) substituents to phenazine and phenothiazine cores. The parent heterocycles exhibit two partially reversible oxidations at moderate potentials [both at lower than 0.7 V vs ferrocene/ferrocenium (Fc/Fc+)]. The incorporation of DAC substituents has a dual effect on these systems. The DAC groups increase the redox potential of both couples by ∼300 mV while simultaneously rendering the second oxidation (which occurs at 1.20 V vs Fc/Fc+ in the phenothiazine derivative) reversible. The electron-withdrawing nature of the DAC unit is responsible for the increase in redox potential, while the DAC substituents stabilize oxidized forms of the molecules through resonance delocalization of charge and unpaired spin density. These new catholytes were deployed in two-electron redox flow batteries that exhibit voltages of up to 2.0 V and no detectable crossover over 250 cycles.

A highly reducing diquat-type molecule was explored as a negative electrolyte for nonaqueous redox flow batteries. The molecule displays a highly negative 2+/0 reduction potential of −1.67 V (vs. ferrocene), a low mass per electron transferred, and good solubility in CH3CN in both redox states. Moderate capacity retention is observed during electrochemical charge–discharge cycling. A pathway for decomposition during electrochemical cycling is elucidated, and this provides a clear path forward for enhancing stability.

We report the electrochemical characterization of a polythianthrene ladder polymer as a promising positive electrode active material for organic polymer batteries. Polythianthrene was synthesized as a distribution of relatively short oligomers (n = 3 to ∼20) by the condensation of diphenylsulfide catalyzed by AlCl3, and its likely solid-state structure was determined by molecular modeling in combination with X-ray powder diffraction. Polythianthrene functions as the active material in an anion-insertion positive battery electrode with a highly positive potential of +0.87 V vs. ferrocene+/0, or approximately 4.1 V vs. Li/Li+. It has a specific capacity of 71 mAh/g, which may be improved toward a theoretical capacity of 194 mAh/g for one-electron redox per repeat unit. The polythianthrene ladder polymer thus has both a high capacity and high voltage relative to other organic materials, and is a promising material for use as a positive electrode in a “dual-ion” battery.

The molecule (C═C)TTP (TTP = tetra-p-tolylporphyrin) and the triflate salt of its dication, [(C═C)TTP][OTf](2), have been synthesized and characterized. NMR spectroscopy, nucleus-independent chemical shift calculations, and the crystal structure of (C═C)TTP indicate that (C═C)TTP is antiaromatic and (C═C)TTP(2+) is aromatic.

The molecule 4,4''''-di-n-octyl-p-quaterphenyl was synthesized in one step by a nickel-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction. Powder X-ray diffraction shows that it crystallizes in a layered structure with the long axis of the molecule nearly perpendicular to the layer plane. Differential scanning calorimetry indicates a transition to a liquid-crystalline phase at 81 degrees C. Reaction of 4,4'-bis(4-pyridyl)biphenyl with 1-bromooctane yields the dication 2(2+) 2Br-, an "extended viologen" isostructural with 4,4''''-di-n-octyl-p-quaterphenyl. Reduction of 2(2+) 2Br- with sodium amalgam in DMF yields 2, the first neutral extended viologen to be isolated. The molecule 2 is, to the best of our knowledge, the most reducing neutral organic molecule that has been synthesized. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction shows that a diradical form, either singlet or triplet, makes an important contribution to the electronic structure of 2. The broadened 1H NMR spectrum of 2 indicates the presence of a triplet, but it has not been possible to observe the triplet by ESR spectroscopy. The electronic structure of 2 appears to be closely related to that of a classic molecule, Chichibabin's hydrocarbon.

A quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) has been formulated to describe the inhibitory action of a series of alcohols on the cytochrome P-450 catalyzed p -hydroxylation of aniline. The descriptors used in the QSAR are the responses of individual sensors in a polymer-based electronic nose, and are all easily generated experimental values. If the various electronic nose sensor response patterns for the family of test alcohols reflect differences in the chemical properties that are involved in the cytochrome P-450 inhibition process, it ought to be possible to correlate the differences in the electronic nose signals of these analytes with the differences in the cytochrome P-450 inhibition by these species. To evaluate this possibility, multiple linear regression was performed on data obtained from exposure of a series of test alcohols to 19 sensors of a conducting polymer composite electronic nose array. A genetic algorithm was then used to select the optimal set of sensors that best described the inhibitory activity of these alcohols within a linear regression model. The regression equation fit the inhibition data of 20 of the alcohols with an R of 0.995. This fit compares favorably with previously published QSARs on this system that have used log P ( P octanol–water partition coefficient) along with steric parameters of the alcohols, and also compares favorably to QSARs formulated using theoretically calculated parameters.

Utilization of the bulky acetylide, tBu3SiC⋮C-, enabled the synthesis of several early metal polyacetylides. Addition of NaC⋮CH to tBu3SiBr in dimethyl sulfoxide afforded tBu3SiC⋮CH, which was deprotonated to yield tBu3SiC⋮CLi. Treatment of ZrCl4, HfCl4, and TaCl5 with varying amounts of tBu3SiC⋮CLi gave {(THF)2Li(tBu3SiC⋮C)2}Zr(C⋮CSitBu3)3(THF) (1; THF = tetrahydrofuran), {(Et2O)Li(tBu3SiC⋮C)2}Hf(C⋮CSitBu3)3(OEt2) (2), {Li(tBu3SiC⋮C)3}2M (M = Zr, 6; Hf, 7), and {Li(tBu3SiC⋮C)3}Ta(C⋮CSitBu3)3 (3). Metathesis of 3 with KOTf generated KTa(C⋮CSitBu3)6 (4) and cation sequestration of 4 with crypt 2.2.2 provided [K(crypt 2.2.2)][Ta(C⋮CSitBu3)6] (5). Single-crystal X-ray structural studies determined the structures (core symmetry) of 1 (Oh), 2, (Oh), 3 (D3), 5 (D3), 6 (Oh), and 7 (Oh). The D3h to D3 twist in 3 and 5 has a steric origin, and the counterion position appears inconsequential. Origins of the structural preferences illustrated by the dichotomous twisted trigonal prismatic and octahedral cores of the ...

The reactions of Pb(OAc)2 with 1,2,4,5-benzenetetrathiol, 1,4-benzenedithiol, and benzenehexathiol in ethylenediamine yield bright yellow [Pb2(S2C6H2S2)(en)]n, orange-red [Pb3(SC6H4S)3(en)2]n, and brown [Pb3C6S6]n, respectively. The structures of [Pb2(S2C6H2S2)(en)]n and [Pb3C6S6]n were solved by synchrotron X-ray powder diffraction, while the structure of [Pb3(SC6H4S)3(en)2]n was solved by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The bonding in [Pb2(S2C6H2S2)(en)]n indicates the presence of “molecular” units, while in [Pb3C6S6]n, the bonding most resembles that in an inorganic solid such as PbS. The differences in bonding are reflected in the optical and electrical properties of the materials; [Pb3C6S6]n is a semiconductor.

Treatment of GeCl2(dioxane) with Li2(TPP)(OEt2)2 (TPP = tetraphenylporphyrin) in THF yields Ge(TPP), the first free Ge(II) porphyrin complex. In pyridine Ge(TPP) is converted to Ge(TPP)(py)2, an antiaromatic Ge(IV) complex, whereas in benzene the reaction is reversed, and pyridine dissociates from Ge(TPP)(py)2 to form Ge(TPP). That reversible reaction represents an unusual, if not unique, example of an oxidation-state change in a metal induced by coordination of a dative ligand. UV-vis and 1H NMR spectroscopy show that Ge(TPP) is an aromatic Ge(II) porphyrin complex, while the 1H NMR spectrum of Ge(TPP)(py)2 clearly indicates the presence of a strong paratropic ring current, characteristic of an antiaromatic compound. Both Ge(TPP) and Ge(TPP)(py)2 have been crystallographically characterized, and the antiaromaticity of Ge(TPP)(py)2 leads to alternating short and long C-C bonds along the 20-carbon periphery of its porphine ring system. Coordination of pyridine to Ge(TPP) greatly increases its reducing ability: the Ge(TPP)0/2+ redox potential is about +0.2 V, while the Ge(TPP)(py)2(0/+) redox potential is -1.24 V (both vs. ferrocene). The equilibrium constant of the reaction Ge(TPP) + 2 py = Ge(TPP)(py)2 in C6D6 is 22 M-2. The germanium complex of the more electron-withdrawing tetrakis[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]porphyrin, Ge(TArFP), and its pyridine adduct Ge(TArFP)(py)2 were synthesized. The equilibrium constant of the reaction Ge(TArFP) + 2 py = Ge(TArFP)(py)2 in C6F6/C6D6 is 2.3 x 10(4) M-2. Density functional theory calculations are consistent with the experimental observation that M(TPP)(py)2 formation from M(TPP) and pyridine is most favorable for M=Si, borderline for Ge, and unfavorable for Sn.

Treatment of Si(TPP)Cl2 (TPP = tetraphenylporphyrinato) with 2 equiv of Na/Hg in THF yields the reduced porphyrin complex, Si(TPP)(THF)2, in which the porphyrin ring system has an oxidation state of 4− and the complex is antiaromatic. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction reveals that Si(TPP)(THF)2 is highly ruffled and exhibits a unique C−C bond length alternation around its periphery. In addition, experimental 1H and 29Si NMR chemical shifts and NICS (nucleus-independent chemical shift) calculations on a model compound indicate a strong paratropic ring current in Si(TPP).

Polyphenol (p-HOC6H4O)6W is stable with respect to condensation, and formed (4,4′-bipy·HOC6H4O)6W and the 3-D networks [{4,4′-(NC5H4)2(CH2 CH2)}n{(HOC6H 4- O)6W}]∞ (n = 2, 3), when treated with 4,4′-bipy and 1,2-di-4-pyridylethane, respectively.