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The Pedra das Letras archaeological site is located in the Barro village, a rural area in the municipality of Piripiri, Piauí, Brazil. The aim of this paper is to present the first data from the survey of this archaeological site, which has recently been registered at the IPHAN, as well as the main problems affecting its degradation. Pedra das Letras consists of a sandstone block containing a small elevated rock shelter and a side niche with red rock paintings. 58 paintings were found on the rock wall at the back of the shelter, and seven handprints have been identified in the side niche. The most frequent figure in the pictorial panels is the handprint, with 45 representations of this motif having been identified, made using different execution techniques. The remaining figures were attributed to the abstract class, some of them without a clearly defined outline. The main conservation problems include the advanced state of degradation of the sandstone, insect nests (such as termites and wasps), salt efflorescence, wear and tear caused by rainwater, and plants attached to the rock block. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cave biotopes are characterized by stable low temperatures, high humidity, and scarcity of organic substrates. Despite the harsh oligotrophic conditions, they are often inhabited by rich microbial communities. Abundant fouling with a wide range of morphology and coloration of colonies covers the walls of the Shulgan-Tash cave in the Southern Urals. This cave is also famous for the unique Paleolithic painting discovered in the middle of the last century. We aimed to investigate the diversity, distribution, and potential impact of these biofilms on the cave's Paleolithic paintings, while exploring how environmental factors influence the microbial communities within the cave. Results: The cave's biofilm morphotypes were categorized into three types based on the ultrastructural similarities. Molecular taxonomic analysis identified two main clusters of microbial communities, with Actinobacteria dominating in most of them and a unique "CaveCurd" community with Gammaproteobacteria prevalent in the deepest cave sections. The species composition of these biofilms reflects changes in environmental conditions, such as substrate composition, temperature, humidity, ventilation, and CO2 content. Additionally, it was observed that cave biofilms contribute to biocorrosion on cave wall surfaces. Conclusions: The Shulgan-Tash cave presents an intriguing example of a stable extreme ecosystem with diverse microbiota. However, the intense dissolution and deposition of carbonates caused by Actinobacteria pose a potential threat to the preservation of the cave's ancient rock paintings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the winter of 2021, a previously unknown and almost inaccessible cave called Aškawt-i Daya was discovered in the heart of Bakhakuh Mountain in the west central Zagros Mountains of Iran. An exceptional feature of the cave is its collection of paintings on the walls and ceiling with animal and human motifs, rendered in black pigment, both singly and in groups involved in scenes of hunting and slaughter. As with other rock paintings in Iran, establishing a date for these paintings is difficult, but there are hints both from the presence of certain motifs and from accompanying inscriptions that the paintings were probably created from the Achaemenid (550-330 BCE) to the Parthian period (247 BCE-224 CE). A depiction of a bull-man, as well as the appearance in the inscriptions of the names of divinities such as Nergal, Marduk, Sin, and Šamaš, suggest that the original gods to be worshiped in the cave were Mesopotamian. The use of the cave as a place of worship continued into the Seleucid (312-63 BCE) and then the Parthian and early Sassanian periods, by which time the cave had been transformed into the setting for a cult of Mithra.1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Arcos-Pains Karst Region is approximately 850 km², formed by massive carbonate rocks that host hundreds of caves, rock shelters and shafts. Many fossil discoveries exist in the region; one can also find rock paintings and other archaeological remains. A ruiniform landscape, weathered caves and continuous or isolated outcrops characterize the karst. They are cut by diaclasis, fractures and fissures, separated by flattened relief with dolines, uvalas, ponors and blind valleys. The evolution of karst morphology in the region reflects pluviometric and paleoclimatic variations, with faults and fractures from neotectonics events exerting control over water flows. One can observe four geomorphological compartments in this region, each with specific characteristics. The region is an outstanding example of the Brazilian intertropical karst and one of the most important Brazilian mineral deposits of limestone and dolomite. So, delimitating its geomorphological units can facilitate understanding the speleological heritage and guide strategic decisions for sustainable use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We successfully measured four radiocarbon dates on two specimens of a black geometric rock painting with a fragment in jeopardy of naturally spalling off in the wall of a rock shelter in the Ẓufār region, in the south of the Sultanate of Oman. Extraction of carbon dioxide (CO2) for radiocarbon dating of the binder in the black pigment of the rock painting specimen was conducted in the plasma oxidation laboratory at the Office of Archeological Studies in Santa Fe, NM. The radiocarbon content was measured on the Swiss ETH-Zürich accelerator mass spectrometer MICADAS. The dates obtained agreed with one another within the statistical uncertainty and the average date of the four samples was 1500 ± 35 radiocarbon years BP. The calendric equivalents of the average date results in calendric calibration date ranges that span the mid-fifth through mid-seventh centuries (440–453 CE, 478–496 CE, and 534–646 CE). This research demonstrates that it is possible to date the black paintings of the Jebel al-Qara' area of Oman; this is the first pictogram that was dated using radiocarbon dating in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The application techniques of rock paintings constitute one of the central aspects to understand their production processes, since they inform about the constitutive interactions between beings, materials, times and spaces established during the making of the motifs. However, there is little research focused on identifying specific material traces that allow differentiating between the possible application techniques. In general, these have been inferred based on not stated criteria. This article proposes an experimental approach of four application techniques (digital, with a swab, with a brush and with a wooden stick) in order to detect the specific traces left by each one. Subsequently, this knowledge was applied to advance in the macroscopic recording of the rock paintings of La Candelaria cave (departamento Ancasti, Catamarca). Thus, identifying the application techniques of the paintings, highlighted the importance of feedbacking rock art in situ surveys with experimental research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Uralian parietal and rock art (cave paintings and pictographs, or "pisanitsy") represents a unique archaeological and cultural phenomenon, comprising 90 sites stretching for more than 800 km from north to south, which date from the Paleolithic era extending into the present Holocene epoch. The identification of the nature of prehistoric colorants provides an insight into their provenance, manufacture and utilization, as well as contributing to the conservation and restoration of drawings. The studies of mineral, elemental and organic phase composition of the colorant micro-samples from the drawings of Ignatievskaya cave and Idrisovskaya II and Zmiev Kamen' pictographs (Southern and Middle Urals, Russia) discussed in the present work were carried out using a special set of microspectroscopic methods (SEM-EDS and Raman spectroscopy) offering high spatial resolution. The fatty acid composition of the organic phase was analyzed by GC–MS. The technology of colorant manufacture could have included thorough grinding and mixing of unheated hematite with an organic binder made from animal fat and a clayey extender in order to achieve the desired hue and intensity of the color. It is possible that the colorant was applied in layers (Idrisovskaya II and Zmiev Kamen' pictographs). The development of authigenic phosphate and sulfate (gypsum) mineralization, which is observed in all studied sites, as well as oxalate encrustation on the Idrisovskaya II pictograph, indicates the conditions and processes of secondary mineral formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rainmaking group from Sehonghong Shelter (Lesotho) is one of the most publicized and iconic groups of hunter-gatherer rock paintings from the Maloti-Drakensberg range of southern Africa. A variety of manual copies that are representative of the history of rock art copies in the region are sorted into two lineages. The first comprises a family of copies that descend from a freehand sketch created by Joseph Orpen in 1873. The second originated with a tracing made by Patricia Vinnicombe in 1971. This genealogical approach reveals how the group has been isolated from its context, reproduced in a diagrammatic form and studied in a primarily non-pictorial way. Making use of a wider selection of pictorial records pertaining to Sehonghong, the rainmaking group is relocated within the rock shelter, illustrating how digital restoration can potentially restore lost visual qualities of the original. Reconciling pre-digital and digital modes of imaging in this way enables us to capture the instability and specificity of the original rock painting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pedra do Atlas is a sandstone shelter with rock paintings known for the occurrence of more than a hundred spear-throwers represented in the pictorial panels. In addition to rock art, ceramic materials, mineral pigments and some lithics were found at this archaeological site. In this work, representative samples of the ceramic materials were investigated by X-ray fluorescence and X-ray diffractometry, in order to access the chemical-mineralogical composition and firing parameters of the objects produced with clay. Macroscopic examinations with the naked eye and complementary examinations with stereomicroscope and optical microscope were also performed. Archaeometric data show the occurrence of quartz, anatase, anorthite, maghemite, iron phosphate, hematite and rutile. The absence of kaolinite indicates that the firing in the production of these ceramic materials was carried out at temperatures above 500 °C, while the absence of ilmenite suggests that the firing temperature was below 1,000 °C. A radiocarbon dating of 830 ± 30 years before present was obtained for sample PA.2017.33, providing a first chronology for the Pedra do Atlas site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Pedra do Dicionário archaeological site is located in the rural area of the municipality of Piripiri, in northern Piauí, Brazil, consisting of a sandstone under-rock shelter with 356 rock paintings, as well as some engravings. Recently, mineral pigments were found dispersed in the superficial sediments of this rock shelter. Samples of the mineral pigments were analyzed by energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF), Fourier transform infrared energy absorption spectroscopy (FTIR) and powder X-ray diffractometry (XRD) to determine the chemical-mineralogical composition of these pictorial materials. The iron content in these mineral pigments, as determined by EDXRF, here expressed as Fe2O3, is ~14 to ~57 mass%. The XRD and FTIR data show that these pictorial materials contain hematite (aFe2O3), goethite (aFeOOH), quartz (SiO2) and kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4) as crystalline mineral phases. The XRD data show clear evidence that the ferruginous species have low crystallinity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

El articulo discute sobre la pintura rupestre en cueva de pie de la cuesta, Acapulco con el enfoque de la escena consta de dos figuras completas en perfil una antropomorfa

This paper details the Metamorphosis Shelter, an unprecedented record of the archeological wealth of Paraná. Located in the municipality of Piraí do Sul, in the Campos Gerais region of Paraná, this archaeological site surprises not only by the quantity of panels and paintings, but also by the good state of conservation of some groups and by the diversity of representations and styles used. All the panels with rock paintings were photo registered and digital decals were made from the filtered images treatment on DStretch software using the correlation matrix technique in three phases image editing program - automatic, semi-automatic and manual. The rock panels were mapped and geospatialized by speleological topography based on the Union Internationale de Spéléologie (UIS) method of grading and speleometric conventions. Thirty-two panels were documented, amounting to 887 representations ranging from zoomorphic, anthropomorphic, geometric figures, built structures, enigmatic forms, and vestiges. Although the site is reasonably well preserved, urgent actions are needed for the effective protection of this site to avoid degradation of the archaeological content by burning, free circulation of cattle, vegetation cover, and uncontrolled visitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper brings forth preliminary results of recent re-examination of the cave shrine at Jebel Qeili, the site best known for the rock carving shoving Meroitic Prince Shorakaror. The painted depictions in the cave shrine were examined, described, and published by H. A. MacMichael and other scholars in the 20th century. Their descriptions and reproductions are summarised and commented upon. Then they are confronted with the results of recent documentation. Using the modern digital imaging it was possible to improve the previous observations and partly re-evaluate the painted depiction of the god Amun. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rock art is found in many different regions of the world, with ages dated from late Palaeolithic period to the present. However, determining the precise ages for such artworks with direct chronological methods is challenging. U-series dating of secondary carbonates can constrain the age of rock art if these carbonates stratigraphically connected to the art. Hitherto, U-series isotope-dilution analyses with multi-collector inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ID-MC-ICPMS) has been increasingly used for rock art dating. This approach can achieve U–Th isotope-ratio quantification at the per-mille or submille level, but requires chemical pretreatment using isotope spikes and results in a relatively low sampling resolution. While in situ U-series dating using laser ablation-MC-ICPMS (LA-MC-ICPMS) is significantly less precise than ID-MC-ICPMS analysis, it allows to collect spatially resolved data sequences on very thin samples (<1 mm). This is important for identification of open systems and the chronological integrity of the analyses. Therefore, we developed a new method for high spatial resolution U-series in situ analysis. A piece of homogeneous stalagmite was selected as an in-house standard (RM-C1) for U-series in situ dating analysis. RM-C1 contains high U (17.3 ± 1.0 μg/g) and low Th concentrations (<5 ng/g). The 234U/238U and 230Th/238U activity ratios of 1.0116 ± 0.0006 and 0.9525 ± 0.0013, respectively, corresponding to a U-series age of 303.5 ± 1.5 ka, were determined by the ID-MC-ICPMS analyses (n = 10). Using the RM-C1 standard, we were able to date the Dansgaard–Oeschger (D/O) 19 event (with an expected age of 68.9 to 70.3 ka) in a stalagmite to a range from 68.0 ± 2.0 to 71.2 ± 2.5 ka, with an average age of 69.6 ± 1.5 ka (n = 15). This demonstrates the accuracy and reproducibility of our dating protocol. Subsequently, we conducted U-series in situ dating of secondary carbonates associated with rock paintings with two samples from the Cangyuan shelter (CY2-4 and CY2-7) and two samples from the Wanrendong Cave (SL3-A and SL5-A) in Yunnan Province, southwestern China. These samples had high U-concentration (>4 μg/g) and negligible environmental Th. The carbonate layers immediately overlying the pigments of CY2-4 and CY2-7 were dated to 3.7 ± 0.3 and 3.2 ± 0.2 ka, respectively, suggesting that the Canyuan rock paintings belongs to a late Neolithic culture of this area. The pigment layer sandwiched in the sample SL3-A was bracketed to between 8.7 ± 0.3 and 10.1 ± 0.3 ka and in SL5-A to between 10.4 ± 0.3 and 10.8 ± 0.4 ka, implying that the Wanrendong rock paintings probably were created by a hunting-gathering population during the early Holocene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Micro‐Raman spectroscopy was employed for the analysis of samples collected from the shelters Campo Cerda 1, Angostura Blanca and Campo Moncada 1 located in Piedra Parada valley, Chubut province, Argentinian Patagonia. Different coloured layers, degradation products and rock supports were analysed. Haematite (α‐Fe2O3), goethite (α‐FeOOH), green earth and gypsum (CaSO4 ·2H2O) were responsible for the main colouration of the pigmented layers together with other components. Gypsum, Ca‐oxalates and calcite were the major degradation materials affecting the rock paintings and the rock support. Different types of silicates, apatite [Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)] and goethite were positively characterized in the rock support. Point analysis and micro‐Raman mappings contributed towards a better understanding of the materials and layer sequencing of the samples extracted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The uKhahlamba-Drakensberg mountains in the west of KwaZulu-Natal have been home to people for over 25ka years. The primary occupation has, however, been within the last 3ka. Settled primarily by hunter-gatherers, there appears to have been a possible ephemeral pastoralist presence around 2ka and an increasing agriculturist presence during the last 1ka. This paper outlines these occupations, focusing primarily on the northern uKhahlamba-Drakensberg, where most archaeological research has taken place. The emphasis is on the rock shelter excavations at Diamond 1, Driel Shelter, Clarke's Shelter, Collingham Shelter, Good Hope Shelter 1 and Mhlwazini Cave, complemented by reference to open-air and rock shelter surface scatters and rock paintings. Data about the subsistence and material cultural of all these occupants is synthesised to show that the people of the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg, but primarily the hunters-gatherers, had a varied diet complemented by rich material cultural assemblages. The Discussion considers, (i), the notion of hunter-gatherer seasonality concluding that the mountains could have been occupied on an all-year basis and, (ii), the possible presence of pastoralists in and adjacent the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg around 2ka years ago, which might have involved the practice of feasting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research on Later Stone Age (LSA) San rock art in southern Africa has unveiled some of the paint recipes the artists employed. However, these discoveries still need to be linked to human activities in or near the rock shelters where the paintings were made. In this paper, we report characterization and dating results from the catchment of the Metolong Dam, Phuthiatsana Valley, Lesotho. A total of 92 rock painting samples, six grindstones with traces of colouring materials from an excavated context, and 17 potential raw colouring materials were studied. We identified three previously unreported ingredients used by the artists: manganese oxides, calcined bones, and soot. Grindstones are stained with the same raw materials that the painters used. We propose that one of them may have served to prepare the red pigment used to make a human figure and a bichrome eland at Ha Makotoko, but direct links remain difficult to establish with certainty. The potential colouring materials in the valley are red clays, white clays (kaolinite and illite-or-montmorillonite), and gypsum, three compounds used as paints by the artists. Tests conducted to verify their suitability for paintings show these materials may have been ground, but settling (after pre-grinding) offers a quicker and easier way to obtain a fine powder as observed in the paints. Finally, 12 AMS dates provide an initial framework for studying the changing use of paint recipes in the Phuthiatsana Valley over time. Charcoal appears to have been employed over a period of at least 3000 years and carbon black for at least 2000 years, with soot seemingly used only before 2000 cal. BP. This study is currently the largest characterization and dating study of LSA rock art in southern Africa and shows the potential that such combined investigations offer for linking excavated and parietal components of the region's hunter-gatherer archaeological record. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literary data revealed that the Panna district of Madhya Pradesh has not been explored extensively in the context of prehistoric archaeology. Therefore, present study is considered, keeping in view for the same. For this purpose, a systematic exploration of Panna district was conducted during seasons 2019-20. After exploration, a rock art and microliths assemblage site, Badedev (24°45'41.80" N 80°17'2.73"E), Rakseha was discovered at Panna district by the first author and recovered around 500 Microliths assemblages and 02 rock shelters with depiction of paintings. The major type of microliths artefacts identified are; core, flake, blade, bladelets, scraper, lunate, borer, burin, points, triangle, and debris. The typo-technological and morphological analyses of assemblages revealed that various types of stone artefacts used by prehistoric group of this area were made on locally available raw material and they have a sound knowledge of durability of raw material used for tool making, as we have identified more than 36% and 30% of agate and quartz type of microliths respectively among the whole artifacts collected, as both of these are hard as well as durable type of stones. Remains of microliths assemblages and debitage stone material also certified that Badedev prehistoric site was a tool manufacturing site at this area. In rock paintings, themes are most dominantly zoomorphic figurine, human figurine, handprints, and geometric and non-geometric design. For detail study of pictographs DStretch software was utilized. On the basis of rock art style, color, composition, technique, theme, subject matter; motifs such as hunting scenes and large number of animal groups, it is assumed that this site was inhabited by hunter-gatherer group. Finally we are in position to say that the discovery of prehistoric site Badedev Rakseha enhanced our knowledge about the prehistoric culture of central Indian region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Ciencia y Sociedad is the property of Ciencia y Sociedad and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In this work, an innovative non-destructive monitoring methodology based on the analysis over time of open-air rock art sites is presented. This approach is based on the combination of in situ spectroscopic and chemometric studies to diagnose and monitor the state of conservation of rock art sites. Data acquired over a period of time by non-invasive analytical techniques such as portable Raman spectrometry (RS) and handheld energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (HH-EDXRF) spectrometry are compared to detect physicochemical changes that could affect the rock painting integrity. To demonstrate the applicability of the proposed procedure, three analysis campaigns (between 2013 and 2016) were carried out, analyzing Levantine rock pictographs preserved in the rock shelter of Solana de las Covachas VI (Albacete, Spain; see Electronic Supplementary Material (ESM) Fig. S1). The analyzed areas showed different types of active weathering processes such as gypsum and calcium oxalate formation, giving rise to conservation issues such as painting fading, surface loss, microbial colonizations, and formation of crusts. Results evidence that the proposed methodology can be very useful to monitor chemical changes in the surface of the walls where the rock art is located, thus obtaining crucial information for its preservation and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Could not be possible that rock paintings with similar hues and morphologies were the result of different paint preparations inside a cave but distanced in time? Is there any archaeometric approach that allow us to evidence these subtle differences? Aiming to address these inquires, in this work are presented the potentials of new physicochemical lines of evidence for characterization and differentiation of paint mixtures. This will improve the understanding of the technical heterogeneity and temporal complexity of painting sets executed in a particular archaeological site. In order to explore these points, the results obtained in the micro-stratigraphic studies of samples taken from the painted walls of Oyola, an archaeological site located in the northwest of Argentina, are presented. These samples have been analyzed by micro-Raman spectroscopy (mRS) and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray (SEM–EDS). The differences found by cross-section chemical studies could be explained as a consequence of two situations: 1-differences in the painting's chemical components, either in the pigments involved or additives used; and, 2-differences in the physical properties of the mixtures such as stratum thickness and/or particle size. Also, in this article are explained each of the hypothesis, presenting the limits of these interpretations and pointing out future research challenges. As we discussed, it could be possible that the chemical and physical differences found between paint mixtures were the material expression of varied types of pictorial techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The striking sandstone formation of Zolat el Hammad is located in the southern Libyan Desert, about halfway between the Middle Wadi Howar and El Atrun. The place has been known for its numerous rock engravings for more than a hundred years. Wild and domesticated animals as well as few human figures are depicted. Cattle engravings largely dominate, followed by giraffes and ostriches. In 1997 the first paintings were discovered in a small rock shelter. Very schematic bovids are drawn in red and white colour. However, even though it is one of the most remarkable rock art sites in this part of the Sahara, Zolat el Hammad has never been intensely studied. Observations on rock art and archaeology made during a short stay in 2001 are the basis for presenting an account of the area with the aim of encouraging further research on it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Huenul Cave in northern Patagonia, Argentina, contains nearly 900 rock art paintings that date back 8,200 years, making them the oldest directly dated rock art paintings in South America. The paintings include comb-shaped motifs that were traced in reddish black pigment and are believed to have been created by small bands of people who periodically visited the cave. The paintings were likely used as a way to maintain ties and exchange information between far-flung groups in the harsh desert landscape. The use of the same pigment recipe and motif over thousands of years suggests the transmission of knowledge over a long term. [Extracted from the article]

The authors, with the help of a team of researchers, have discovered twelve rock shelters with inside paintings on the southern slopes of the Jbel Bani Mountains in southern Morocco. The paintings vary in subject and time period and span multiple rock art styles. Majestic creatures that once inhabited southern Morocco are depicted next to hunters, pastoralists, and warriors. The shelters and paintings cast upon their walls illustrate a transfer of culture, beliefs, technology, and ideas between people groups of the Meridional and Central Sahara and the Jbel Bani region. These discoveries were all made along a mountain path in the Bani Mountains known as Foum Laachar and may help trace ancient human migration routes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During last decades, rock shelter paintings have been described as the most magnificent expression of the scenes of ancient daily lives culture in graphic form. In the scientific field, different analytical techniques have been used for the characterization of different pigments present in the pictographs from rock shelter paintings. Example of this are the Inkaterra rock shelter paintings, which are placed in one of the most impressive and unknown natural setting, located in the town of Aguas Calientes, belonging to the lands of the Hotel Machupicchu Pueblo, forming part of Machupicchu Archaeological Park (Peru) and are composed by many different geometric pictographs. In this work, apart from micro-Raman spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled to Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (SEM-EDS) have been used to ascertain the molecular and elemental composition of the rock substrate as well as of the different pigments used to create the pictographs visible on the Inkaterra rock shelter. In this sense, black, red and orange pigments were analyzed, identifying the use of carbon, hematite and beta-carotene respectively. Thus, thanks to this work it has been demonstrated that the orange color was not present in the original painting, but it is caused due to microbiological colonizations favored by the climate conditions of the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rock paintings of two recent discovered rock shelters, Galb Budarga and Tuama Budarga, from the southeastern area of the Western Sahara, Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, have been studied by micro-Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry in order to characterize the composition of the materials present in the painting panels. An unusual white pigment has been used in the zoomorphic pictographs of the Galb Budarga shelter which main components are the anhydrite (CaSO 4 ) polymorphs I and II. Red and orange zoomorphic figures and ancient Berber scripts have been painted in the Tuama Budarga rock shelter. Haematite (α-Fe 2 O 3 ) is the main component of the paints used; amorphous carbon and different manganese oxides have also been detected. Accretions of gypsum (CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O) and anhydrite have been observed on the shelter wall used to paint. α-Quartz (α-SiO 2 ), albite (NaAlSi 3 O 8 ), dolomite, CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 , calcite (CaCO 3 ) and traces of hydroxylapatite (Ca 10 (PO 4 ) 6 (OH) 2 ) have been identified in the rocks supporting the paintings of both sites. Layers of calcium oxalates, whewellite (CaC 2 O 4 ·H 2 O) and weddellite (CaC 2 O 4 ·(2 + x)H 2 O, x ≤ 0.5) cover the pictorial panels of these rock shelters. A microestratrigraphic study of the paint used in the Tuama Budarga shelter revealed that the pigment layer is bracketed between oxalate layers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The longwall top coal caving (LTCC) production method, applied by forming a face in the horizontal thickness of the seam and also called horizontal section top coal caving, especially in studies originating from China, is widely used in the production of inclined and thick coal seams. In this production method, in addition to the top coal losses that occur behind the face in the traditional LTCC production method, and top coal loss zone occurs above the tail part of the face. Here, the caving height is an effective parameter in the top coal losses occurring behind the face and on the tail part of the face, and in this study, the effect of caving height on the efficiency of the LTCC method applied in inclined and thick coal seams was investigated. In the study, a physical model was used, which was tested with field data and achieved a minimum success rate of 93.4% in the test parameters. In order to determine the effect of the caving height on the efficiency of the LTCC method, a total of 15 tests were performed with the physical model in 3 different seam slopes. As a result of the tests, it was determined that the amount of top coal and waste rock drawn and top coal loss increased with the increase in the caving height value. On the other hand, it was determined that the rock mixture ratio first decreased and then increased with the increase in the caving height value. In addition, the flow angle of the top coal was determined as an average of 74.9° in the coal loss zone between the top coal and the floor and 73.4° on the gob. • Importance of caving height in LTCC applied in steeply inclined thick coal seams. • Applicability of physical modeling as research method. • Compatibility of the physical model with the field data. • Importance of coal seam slope and thickness in LTCC applications. • Effects of caving height on top coal loss and rock mixture ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seen by all who visit Wonderwerk Cave, the rock paintings that adorn its walls have attracted less attention than many other aspects of the site. The paper gives a brief account of their history and significance and of factors that have constrained their study. Graffiti damage and restoration added layers through which researchers would need to delve in order to understand them archaeologically. Pointing to directions for future work, the paper concludes with discussion on a currently debated category of southern African rock art, the 'non-entoptic' geometric rock art tradition, to which the Wonderwerk Cave rock paintings would belong. A shift in theoretical focus is advocated for comprehending local contingencies in the formation of rock art 'traditions' rather than simply assuming the prior existence of such constructs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most religions involve communication between physical beings in this world and spiritual beings in a supernatural realm. This communication occurs across metaphorical bridges that connect the contrasting realms. Focusing on the hunter-gatherer San of southern Africa and the mixed agriculturalist and hunter Cherokees and Creeks of southeastern North America, this article shows that San painted in rock shelters and Cherokees and Creeks engraved open-air rock surfaces. In doing so, both communities juxtaposed and integrated entities from the material and spiritual realms. Ritual practitioners moved between realms and manifested this movement on the rock surfaces that bridged the realms. The cumulative effect of continually adding images was not, for the indigenous people, chaotic but rather the creation of a powerful, inter-realm construct Ritual practitioners' ability to cross the bridges between realms gave them an opportunity to further their own social standing and influence, as is indicated in the historical records of both societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]