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Hypoxic/ischemic trauma is a primary factor in the pathology of various vascular, pulmonary, and cerebral disease states. Yet, the signaling mechanisms by which cells respond and adapt to changes in oxygen levels are not clearly established. The effects of hypoxia on the stress-and mitogen-activated protein kinase (SAPK and MAPK) signaling pathways were studied in PC12 cells. Exposure to moderate hypoxia (5%O2) was found to progressively stimulate phosphorylation and activation of p38γ in particular, and also p38α. two isoforms of the p38 family of stress-activated protein kinases. In contrast, hypoxia had no effect on enzyme activity of p38β, p38β2, p38δ or on JNK, another stress-activated protein kinase. Prolonged hypoxia also induced phosphorylation and activation of p42/p44 MAPK, although this activation was modest when compared to NGF and UV-induced activation. We further showed that activation of p38γ and MAPK during hypoxia requires calcium, as treatment with Ca2+-free media or the calmodulin antagonist, W13, blocked the activation of p38γ and MAPK, respectively. These studies demonstrate that an extremely typical physiological stress (hypoxia) causes selective activation of specific elements of the SAPKs and MAPKs, and identifies Ca+2/CaM as a critical upstream activator.

Transplantation of dopamine-secreting cells harvested from fetal mesencephalon directly into the striatum has had limited success as a therapy for Parkinson's disease. A major problem is that the majority of the cells die during the first 3 weeks following transplantation. Hypoxia in the tissue surrounding the graft is a potential cause of the cell death. We have used subtractive cDNA libraries and microarray analysis to identify the gene expression profile that regulates tolerance to hypoxia. An improved understanding of the molecular basis of hypoxia-tolerance may allow investigators to engineer cells that can survive in the hypoxic environment of the brain parenchyma following transplantation.

The cellular response to hypoxia is complex. Specialized oxygen chemosensitive cells that are excitable respond to reduced O2 by membrane depolarization, altered gene expression, and neurotransmitter secretion. We have used the O2-sensitive pheochromocytoma (PC12) cell line to investigate the cellular response to hypoxia. Here, we present evidence that membrane depolarization and increased intracellular free Ca2+ are major regulatory events in these cells. Membrane depolarization is mediated by the inhibition of a slow-inactivating voltage-dependent potassium (K) channel. Evidence from molecular biology and patch-clamp studies indicate that the O2-sensitive K channel is a member of the Kv1 family. We also reviewed findings on the regulation of gene expression in PC12 cells during hypoxia. An increase in intracellular free Ca2+ is required for hypoxia-induced transcription of a number of genes including tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate-limiting enzyme in the synthesis of catecholamine neurotransmitters, and several of the immediate early genes. We also reviewed the role of dopamine (DA) and adenosine (ADO) receptors in regulation of membrane depolarization and gene expression.