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Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells are those that form the water as the only by-product that directly and efficiently converts the chemical energy stored in the fuel into electrical energy; it is a technology that has the potential to reduce our energy use, pollutant emissions and dependence on fossil fuels. PEM fuel cells, which have started commercializing as a result of long years of research and development, still have difficulties to overcome to be an alternative to traditional technologies. In order to overcome the difficulties such as sustainability, durability and cost, the detailed study of PEM fuel cells’ working principle, thermodynamics, and the tasks of the ongoing research studies; In addition, potential development areas should be known and development activities should continue in this direction. In the compilation study, in addition to the detailed examination of the theory of PEM fuel cell; information on ongoing studies in the world literature has been given and the areas of application that have been in place since the discovery date are summarized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A framework is presented for identifying appropriate systems for storage of electrical, mechanical, chemical, and thermal energy in solar energy supply systems. Classification categories include the nature of the supply system's setting; the type of energy supplied ; the type of solar energy collection system used (including ' indirect ' solar energy, such as wind and hydropower) ; the type of energy stored ; and some other characteristics of the storage system. A global insolation summary is used to exhibit the diversity of requirements for solar energy storage in different settings. Comments are then made on the need and opportunities for 24 hr storage of electrical energy in batteries; backup systems that use stored chemical fuel derived from solar energy; storage of intermediate temperature heat as heat of hydration of compounds such as sulfuric acid; annual storage of low temperature heat in fresh water ponds or aquifers; and annual storage of ice produced in places with cold winters. Arguments are presented for using a systems approach to the selection of solar energy storage methods appropriate for use in specific types of settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]