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In the last two decades we have assisted to a rush towards finding a 3He-replacing technology capable of detecting neutrons emitted from fissile isotopes. The demand stems from applications like nuclear war-head screening or preventing illicit traffic of radiological materials. Semiconductor detectors stand among the strongest contenders, particularly those based on materials possessing a wide band gap like silicon carbide (SiC). We review the workings of SiC-based neutron detectors, along with several issues related to material properties, device fabrication and testing. The paper summarizes the experimental and theoretical work carried out within the E-SiCure project (Engineering Silicon Carbide for Border and Port Security), co-funded by the NATO Science for Peace and Security Programme. The main goal was the development of technologies to support the fabrication of radiation-hard silicon carbide detectors of special nuclear materials. Among the achievements, we have the development of successful Schottky barrier based detectors and the identification of the main carrier life-time-limiting defects in the SiC active areas, either already present in pristine devices or introduced upon exposure to radiation fields. The physical processes involved in neutron detection are described. Material properties as well as issues related to epitaxial growth and device fabrication are addressed. The presence of defects in as-grown material, as well as those introduced by ionizing radiation are reported. We finally describe several experiments carried out at the Jozef Stefan Institute TRIGA Mark II reactor (Ljubljana, Slovenia), where a set of SiC-based neutron detectors were tested, some of which being equipped with a thermal neutron converter layer. We show that despite the existence of large room for improvement, Schottky barrier diodes based on state-of-the-art 4 H -SiC are closing the gap between gas- and semiconductor-based detectors regarding their sensitivity.

In 2016, the “E-SiCure” project (standing for “Engineering Silicon Carbide for Border and Port Security”), funded by the NATO Science for Peace and Security Programme was launched. The main objective is to combine theoretical, experimental and applied research towards the development of radiation-hard SiC-based detectors of special nuclear materials (SNM), with the end goal to enhance border and port security barriers. Prototype neutron detectors, configured as 4H-SiC-based Schottky barrier diodes, were developed for the detection of secondary charged particles (tritons, alphas and lithium atoms) which are the result of thermal neutron reactions on 10B and 6LiF layers above the surface of the 4H-SiC diodes. We designed a stand-alone prototype detection system, consisting of a preamplifier, shaping amplifier and a multichannel analyser operated by a laptop computer, for testing of neutron detector prototypes at the Jožef Stefan Institute (JSI) TRIGA reactor using a broad beam of reactor neutrons. The reverse bias for the detector diode and the power to electronic system were provided by a standalone battery-powered voltage source. The detector functionality was established through measurements using an 241Am alpha particle source. Two dedicated experimental campaigns were performed at the JSI TRIGA reactor. The registered pulse height spectra from the detectors, using both 10B and 6LiF neutron converting layers, clearly demonstrated the neutron detection abilities of the SiC detector prototypes. The computed neutron detection sensitivity of the single prototype detectors demonstrates that scaling SiC detectors into larger arrays, of dimensions relevant for border and port radiation detectors, could enable neutron sensitivity levels matching gas-based detector technology.

In 2016, the NATO Science for Peace and Security Programme funded research project ”Engineering Silicon Carbide for Border and Port Security” — E-SiCure was launched, its objective being the development of radiation-hard silicon carbide (SiC) based detectors of special nuclear materials (SNM), with the aim to enhance border and port security barriers. Detector prototypes based on SiC Schottky Barrier Diodes (SBDs) and neutron converter films were developed. This paper presents the results of a dedicated experimental testing campaign performed at the Jožef Stefan Institute (JSI) TRIGA reactor in which several SiC detector prototypes equipped with 10 B and 6 LiF converter films were irradiated in the Dry Chamber of the reactor. The obtained results demonstrate a clearly measurable neutron response, which varies linearly with the neutron flux. The measured particle spectra from the SiC detectors exhibit a clear structure, attributable to the nature and energy of secondary particles originating as reaction products from nuclear reactions involving 10 B and 6 Li isotopes. The determined sensitivity of the detectors, their active volume being 1 mm × 1 mm × 25 μ m , 1 mm × 1 mm × 69 μ m and 1 mm × 1 mm × 170 μ m , was of the order of 2 × 10−5 counts per second, per unit of neutron flux [counts s−1 per n cm−2s−1] (for neutron energies between 0 and 5 eV). Scaling the detection sensitivity by a factor of 1 0 5 , i.e. to an array with a surface of around 20 cm × 2 m, comparable to large B F 3 or 3 He detectors, would theoretically enable an overall sensitivity of around 2 counts s−1 per n cm−2s−1, which is already comparable to typical neutron sensitivity values of gas detectors, in the range from several to over 100 counts s−1 per n cm−2s−1. Due to its outstanding tolerance to harsh environments (including high temperatures and radiation fields) and superior electronic properties when compared to other semiconductors, SiC is a promising base material for the fabrication of solid-state detectors with stable and long life-time. Improvements in sensitivity combined with the capability of fabricating large modules (SiC arrays), could make SiC an important detection technology, applicable also in the context of border and port security barrier monitoring.

Developing new state-of-the-art, low-cost and radiation hard detectors is an extremely difficult challenge which can be tackled only by a multisciplinary group of scientists and engineers from various fields having access to different infrastructure.

In 2016, the ”E-SiCure” project (standing for Engineering Silicon Carbide for Border and Port Security), funded by the NATO Science for Peace and Security Programme, was launched. The main objective is to combine theoretical, experimental and applied research towards the development of radiation-hard SiC-based detectors of special nuclear materials (SNM), and by that way, to enhance border and port security barriers. Along the plan, material modification processes are employed firstly to study, and secondly to manipulate the most severe electrically active defects (which trap or annihilate free charge carriers), by specific ion implantation and defect engineering. This paper gives an overview of the experimental activities performed at the JSI TRIGA reactor in the framework of the E-SiCure project. Initial activities were aimed at obtaining information on the radiation hardness of SiC and at the study of the energy levels of the defects induced by neutron irradiation. Several Schottky barrier diodes were fabricated out of nitrogen-doped epitaxial grown 4H-SiC, and irradiated under Cd filters in the PT irradiation channel in the JSI TRIGA reactor with varying neutron fluence levels. Neutron-induced defects in the material were studied using temperature dependent current-voltage (I-V), capacitance-voltage (C-V) and Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS) measurements. Our prototype neutron detectors are configured as 4H-SiC-based Schottky barrier diodes for detection of secondary charged particles (tritons, alphas and lithium atoms) which are result of thermal neutron conversion process in 10B and 6LiF layers above the surface of the 4H-SiC diodes. For field testing of neutron detectors using a broad beam of reactor neutrons we designed a standalone prototype detection system consisting of a preamplifier, shaping amplifier and a multichannel analyser operated by a laptop computer. The reverse bias for the detector diode and the power to electronic system are provided by a standalone battery-powered voltage source. The detector functionality was established through measurements using an 241Am alpha particle source. Two dedicated experimental campaigns were performed at the JSI TRIGA reactor. The registered pulse height spectra from the detectors, using both 10B and 6LiF neutron converting layers, clearly demonstrated the neutron detection abilities of the SiC detector prototypes.

This paper presents the growth, fabrication and characterization of indium-doped cadmium manganese telluride (CdMnTe) crystals grown by the vertical Bridgman technique. The 10 × 10 × 1.9 mm3 samples have been fabricated, and the charge collection properties of the CdMnTe detectors have been measured. Alpha-particle spectroscopy measurements have yielded an average charge collection efficiency approaching 100%. Ion beam induced charge (IBIC) measurements have been performed by raster scanning focused 5.5 MeV 4He beams onto the detectors. Spatially resolved charge collection efficiency maps have been produced for a range of detector bias voltages. Inhomogeneities in the charge transport of the CdMnTe crystals have been associated with chains of Te inclusions within the detector bulk, and the reduction in charge collection efficiency in their locality has been quantified. It has been shown that the role of Te inclusions in degrading charge collection is reduced with increasing values of bias voltage. IBIC measurements for a range of low biases have highlighted the evolution of the charge collection uniformity across the detectors.

Since 1991 ANSTO's ion beam analysis (IBA) laboratory has been sampling fine atmospheric particles every Wednesday and Sunday at urban and rural sites in New South Wales. Multi-elemental accelerator-based IBA techniques were used to characterise major components and significant trace elements with minimum detectable limits close to 1 ng/m3. Observed mass concentrations will be compared with air quality US EPA standards and proposed Australian fine particle NEPM guidelines. Trace elements strongly associated with source fingerprints responsible for high air pollution will also be discussed in this paper.

Growth, fabrication and characterization of indium-doped cadmium manganese telluride (CdMnTe) radiation detectors have been described. Alpha-particle spectroscopy measurements and time resolved current transient measurements have yielded an average charge collection efficiency approaching 100 %. Spatially resolved charge collection efficiency maps have been produced for a range of detector bias voltages. Inhomogeneities in the charge transport of the CdMnTe crystals have been associated with chains of tellurium inclusions within the detector bulk. Further, it has been shown that the role of tellurium inclusions in degrading charge collection is reduced with increasing values of bias voltage. The electron drift velocity was calculated from the rise time distribution of the preamplifier output pulses at each measured bias. From the dependence of drift velocity on applied electric field the electron mobility was found to be μn = (718 ± 55) cm2/Vs at room temperature.

Nuclear milli and microprobes at the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) were used to determine lead accumulation in native Australian plants and animals. Three species of eucalypt plants (Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus lesouefii), one species of salt bush (Atriplex burbhanyana) and one species each of acacia (Acacia saligna) and estuarine crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) were investigated. Experimentally grown plants were subjected to a nutrient solution with a pH of 5 and spiked with a 200 μmol concentration of Pb. Lead concentrations in leaves of both E. globulus and E. camaldulensis showed an almost exponential decrease from the base of the main vein to the tip. Similarly, Pb concentrations decreased from the main vein to secondary veins. Concentrations of essential elements such as K, Fe, Zn and Br in the main and secondary veins were constant within experimental uncertainty. In contrast, the concentrations of Pb in the leaf veins of E. lesouefii were much lower and showed no systematic pattern. In stem and root samples the highest concentration of Pb was found in roots and stem of E. globulus and A. burbhanyana followed by E. camaldulensis. Some Pb was found in roots of A. saligna and only very low concentration in stem of the same plant. More detailed analysis of thin cross-sectional samples of roots and stem showed that Pb is present in much higher concentration in the growth area of the plant structure (i.e. meristemic region) and in relatively low concentration within the pith region and outer cortex. The osteoderms (dermal bones) of estuarine crocodiles, exposed to lead ammunition in food from the hunting activities of traditional Aboriginal owners, were sampled at two sites in Kakadu National Park, northern Australia. PIXE analyses showed enhanced, but relatively constant, ratios of Pb/Ca in the annual laminations. This was consistent with both their history of long term exposure to elevated anthropogenic Pb sources and the hypothesis that the osteoderm can be used as an archive of the crocodile's exposure to Pb during its life.

The behavior of haematite was studied in a boiling water loop operating at pressures up to 5.7 MPa. Nucleate boiling, induced at different temperatures and pressures, increased the deposition of haematite on heated surfaces, with both deposition and boiling increasing downstream of the onset of boiling. Deposition rate constants at boiling surfaces ranged from 7 to 200 μm s−1 and averaged 60 μm s−1, and on nonboiling surfaces they ranged from 4 to 50 μm s−1 and averaged 15 μm s−1. Release rates of corrosion products (crud) from isothermal surfaces were calculated in the range 0.3 to 3 μg m−2 s−1. The behavior of crud deposits during cleaning provided further evidence of the consolidation of deposits with time, temperature and, possibly, bulk boiling.