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The small Plio-Quaternary volcanic centre of Cabezo Negro de Tallante in SE Spain includes a thick deposit of polymictic pyroclastic tuff-breccia, whose fragments are agglutinated by a carbonate-rich component. This feature is also observed in other monogenetic volcanic centres cropping out in the Tallante-Cartagena volcanic district. The carbonate fraction has been recently interpreted in literature as representing a mantle component, therefore pointing to the existence of a diffuse carbonatitic activity in the area. Based on detailed sedimentological (presence of pisoids and root remnants), petrographic (presence of plagioclase and absence of euhedral silicate minerals in the calcite plagues), mineral chemistry (Ba-Sr-poor calcite composition), whole-rock chemistry (overall low incompatible element content in the pure carbonate fraction and a monotonous trace element negative correlation with CaO) as well as isotopic constraints (perfect correlations between Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic ratios with CaO in the basaltic and carbonate fraction, as well as heavy δ18O and light δ13C isotopic composition of the carbonate fraction), we propose a secondary origin for the carbonate component, excluding any contribution of mantle carbonatite melts. The presence of carbonates infiltrating the abundant mantle and crustal xenolith fragments found in the pyroclastic breccia is not related to the presence of carbonatitic melts at mantle to lower crustal depths, but to in-situ fragmentation of the Strombolian tuff-breccia deposit, followed by secondary carbonate infiltration. The pyroclastic breccia was indeed affected by an alternation of carbonate precipitation and dissolution in a vadose zone, where the activity of bacteria, fungi, roots and meteoric water led to the formation of a calcrete (caliche)-type deposits. Basaltic rocks (hawaiites and basanites) occur in the area as scoria and lava fragments in the pyroclastic breccia as well as small lava flows. They have been modelled with a low-degree partial melting of an amphibole-bearing peridotitic mantle close to the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary. The origin of the mildly alkaline sodic basaltic activity in SE Spain post-dates the abundant and long-lasting subduction-related volcanic phase in the Betic Chain. Its origin is explained without requiring the presence of any thermal anomaly, but simply as consequence of the difference of lithospheric depths and edge-driven-type small-scale convection.

The late Miocene is a crucial interval for global climate evolution as well as for the regional geodynamic evolution of the Central Mediterranean area. It spans the transition from the warm Mid Miocene Climatic Optimum, associated with the major Monterey Carbon Isotope Excursion, to the cooler Pliocene, characterized by a bipolar glaciation. Within this climatic transition, during the early Tortonian, a positive carbon isotope excursion related to a global carbon cycle perturbation is recorded, named Carbon Maximum 7 (CM7). In this study, two upper Serravallian-lower Tortonian carbonate ramps of the Central Mediterranean have been analysed: the Latium-Abruzzi and the Apula ramps (Central Apennines, Central Italy). Carbon isotope ratios have been coupled with facies and microfacies analyses with the aims: (1) to identify the CM7 in the Central Mediterranean carbonate ramp successions; (2) to evaluate potential carbonate factory changes or demises related to the CM7; and (3) to discriminate the role of global vs regional factors in affecting the Mediterranean carbonate ramps. The two studied ramps show different evolutions due to regional geodynamics causes. The Latium-Abruzzi ramp drowns in the Tortonian, while the Apula shows a regressive trend, with upper Tortonian middle ramp facies overlying the lower Tortonian outer ramp. Despite the complex geodynamic setting, a positive carbon isotope shift has been identified in both ramps and correlated with the CM7. This positive carbon isotope shift may be linked to the strengthening of the global ocean circulation during the late Miocene cooling. This strengthening of the circulation enhanced the coastal upwelling, bringing nutrient-rich waters to the surface and triggering an enhanced primary productivity consistent with the CM7.

This work illustrates a combined modelling approach using digital photogrammetry and geological modelling to create a high detailed 3D facies model of the inner environment of the Monte Carrubba carbonate ramp outcropping in the South Sicily. The Monte Carrubba Formation (Tortonian-lower Messinian) is the youngest marine Miocene carbonate deposit of the Hyblean region, prior to the Messinian crisis of the Mediterranean. In particular, Faro Santa Croce outcrop, which is in vertical thickness up to 8 m shows the most proximal sector of this ramp. The Faro Santa Croce outcrop offers the opportunity to investigate and reproduce a highly-detailed facies heterogeneity 3D model for a very narrow and limited area of few squared kilometers (0.1 Km2), developed in a tectonically stable area. Within this small areal, five facies have been recognized and modelled revealing a high level of facies heterogeneity. In this area marine ooidal shoals (ooidal grainstone to packstone) interfingered with shallow water seagrass environment (green-algal-floatstone facies and bioclastic grainstone-to-packstone facies) with abundant mollusc fauna. The distal part of this vegetated environment (fine-grained mollusc-packstone facies) passed basinward into coral mounds (coral boundstone). The combination of digital photogrammetry and 3D geological modelling software has allowed to obtain a very high-resolution model of facies heterogeneity, evidencing the complexity of facies associations and, in particular, the development of a facies mosaic that can be underestimated by a classical 1D or 2D field analysis, especially in limitedly exposed outcrops.

Understanding the factors controlling fracture frequency distribution can greatly improve the assessment of fluid circulation in fault damage zones, with evident implications for fault mechanics, hydrogeology and hydrocarbon exploration. This is particularly important for relay zones that are usually characterized by strong damage and structural complexity. We investigated the fracture frequency within an outcrop adjacent to the front fault segment of a relay ramp, hosted within peritidal carbonates that forms part of the Tre Monti fault (Central Italy). We analysed the distribution of fracture frequency in the outcrop through (1) scanlines measured in the field, (2) oriented rock samples, and (3) scan-areas performed on a virtual outcrop model. Fracture frequency increases with distance from the front segment of the relay ramp. Moreover, supratidal and intertidal carbonate facies exhibit higher fracture frequency than subtidal limestones. This trend of increased fracture frequency has two main explanations. (1) The number of subsidiary faults and their associated damage zones increases moving away from the front segment. (2) The supratidal and intertidal carbonate facies content increases toward the centre of the relay ramp. Our results indicate that the fracture frequency pattern is very complex in relay ramps hosted in shallow-water limestones and that its prediction necessitates a good control on structures and sedimentary facies distribution.

Fractures constitute the main pathway for fluids in fault damage zones hosted in low-porosity rocks. Understanding the factors controlling fracture distribution is hence fundamental to better assess fluids circulation in fault damage zones, with evident implications for fault mechanics, hydrogeology and hydrocarbon exploration. Being usually characterized by a strong damage and structural complexity, this is of particularly importance for relay zones.We integrated classical and modern structural geology techniques to investigate the factors controlling fracture distribution within a portion of a relay ramp damage zone pertaining to the Tre Monti fault (Central Italy). The damage zone is hosted within peritidal carbonates and located at the footwall of the relay ramp front segment. We analysed the distribution of the fracture density in the outcrop through (1) scanlines measured in the field, (2) oriented rock samples, and (3) scan-areas performed on a virtual outcrop model obtained by aerial structure-from-motion.Our results highlight structural and lithological control on fracture distribution. Scanlines and virtual scan-areas show that fracture density increases with the distance from the front segment of the relay ramp. Moreover, all the methods highlight that supratidal and intertidal carbonate facies exhibit higher fracture density than subtidal limestones.This apparently anomalous trend of fracture density, that increases moving away from a main fault segment, has two main explanations. (1) The damage is associated with the relay ramp development: approaching the centre of the relay ramp (i.e., moving away from the front segment) an increase in the number of subsidiary faults with their associated damage zones promotes high fracture densities. (2) The increase in fracture density can be attributed to the increasing content in supratidal and intertidal carbonate facies that are more abundant in the centre of the relay ramp.Our results provide important suggestions for factors controlling fracture distribution and fluid flow within relay ramps hosted by shallow water limestones. We show that the trend of fracture distribution with respect to a main fault is not easily predictable in presence of a relay ramp, because it can be modulated by the subsidiary faults formation and slip during the relay ramp development. Moreover, carbonate facies play a non-negligible role in fracture distribution within fault zones hosted in shallow-water carbonates.

This two-days field trip is focused on the Bolognano Formation, the homoclinal carbonate ramp developed on the Majella Mountain (Central Apennines) from the late Rupelian to the Messinian. The northern sectors of the Majella Mountain show excellent and continuous exposures of this carbonate ramp. In the late Oligoceneearly Miocene, the paleoceanography of the Mediterranean was controlled by different seaways, one of the largest being the proto-Adriatic basin, bounded by the Apulian carbonate platform and by the Dinaride coast. In this context, a strong northward current led to the development of submarine dunes during the Chattian and the Burdigalian. In this fieldtrip, we discuss the relationships among sedimentary structures and depositional processes, stratigraphic architecture and syn/ post-depositional tectonics. Furthermore, the lower Miocene cross-bedded calcarenites of the Bolognano Fm identify an important reservoir rock. In the last two stops, the bitumen shows are analysed and the possible controlling factors of migration and trapping are discussed. The comparison between bitumen-filled fractured and unfractured rocks allows detecting the controlling factors on the migration of the hydrocarbons and its relationship with tectonics. The high primary porosity and the lateral continuity of the calcarenites are identified as the main controlling factor on the hydrocarbon migration.

The aim of this work is to reproduce a metre-scale facies heterogeneity 3D model of the Chattian Porto Badisco Calcarenite carbonate ramp outcropping in the Salento Peninsula (southern Italy). However, in shallow-water carbonate systems, capturing metre-scale facies heterogeneity in three-dimensional models remains controversial due to the possibility of facies coexistence and because their association can change through time and space. Within this context, the continuous and well-exposed Chattian Porto Badisco Calcarenite carbonate ramp allows detailed study of the distribution of lithofacies association and their architecture along the dip direction depositional profile. The lithofacies and the depositional model of the Porto Badisco Calcarenite are referred to those defined by Pomar et al. (2014). The Porto Badisco Calcarenite is a homoclinal carbonate ramp with a euphotic inner setting characterised by the extensive seagrass meadows, passing basinward into a large rotaliid packstone and coral mounds developed in mesophotic conditions. The deeper part of the oligophotic zone is characterised by rhodolithic floatstone to rudstone and large lepidocyclinid packstone. The distal part of the ramp is characterise by a fine calcarenite. The methodology used in this work combines classical field data collection (e.g., stratigraphic logs and field-facies mapping) and 3D stochastic modeling by using Petrel™. All the data (top and base of stratigraphic logs, cross-section, key surfaces, lithofacies lateral extension etc.) were georeferenced and inserted into the software to build the digital outcrop model. The 3D facies model has been performed after several simulations through specific stochastic algorithms (SISim, TGSim), comparing the models reproduce by the two algorithms, matching the depositional geometries and the lithofacies association observed in the outcrop. The 3D modeling represents a useful tool to better understand the facies architecture and their complex heterogeneity. Moreover, a detailed 3D facies model provides an essential tool to characterise semi-quantitatively sedimentological features for subsurface reservoir studies.

The Eocene-Oligocene transition marks a fundamental step in the evolution of the modern climate. This climate change and the consequent major oceanic reorganisation affected the global carbon cycle, whose dynamics across this crucial interval are far from being clearly understood. In this work, the upper Eocene to lower Oligocene δ13CCarb and δ13CTOC records of a shallow-water and a hemipelagic carbonate settings within the Central Mediterranean area have been studied and discussed. The shallow-water carbon isotope signal has been analysed in the northern portion of the Apula Platform, cropping out in the Majella Mountain, Central Apennines (Santo Spirito Formation). A coeval Umbria-Marche basinal succession has been investigated in the Massignano section (Conero area, Central Italy). The purposes of this work are: to discriminate between the global and the local (Mediterranean) signature of C-isotope record during the Oi-1 event, to correlate the regional C-isotope signal with the global record, and to evaluate the carbon cycle dynamics across the greenhouse-icehouse transition through the integration of complementary records (shallow-water vs pelagic settings, δ13CCarb vs δ13CTOC). The upper Eocene carbon isotope record of the analysed successions matches with the global signal. The overall trend shows a decrease of the δ13CCarb and a contemporary increase of the δ13CTOC. The decoupling of the two curves is consistent with a reduced fractionation effect by primary producers that characterised the interval between the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum and the onset of the Oi-1 event. However, regional factors superimposed the global signal. In fact, the upper Eocene basinal δ13CTOC record is marked by short-term negative spikes, which possibly represent times of higher productivity triggered by the westward subtropical Eocene Neo-tethys current entering from the Arabian-Eurasian gateway. On the contrary, the shallow-water record does not display these short-term productivity pulses. A change in the carbonate factory is only recorded at the Eocene-Oligocene transition, marked by a reduction of the larger benthic foraminifera and the spread of seagrass and corals. Moreover, in the shallow-water record of the Santo Spirito Formation, no major carbon isotope shift related to the Oi-1 event is recorded due to the presence of extensive slumps that disrupt the bedding. These slumps are the main evidence of the sea-level drop that occurred concomitantly with the onset of the Antarctica ice-sheet, which caused the deepening of the storm wave base and increased the instability over the entire ramp.

Heavy oil and bitumens have been exploited in Italy during the past, in particular over the Maiella Mountain’s northwest flank (Central Italy), where relatively undeformed, hydrocarbon-bearing carbonate-ramp reservoirs of the Bolognano Formation crop out. These reservoirs represent the exhumed analog of a wider petroleum system that has been investigated also in the subsurface by exploration activities, both onshore and offshore (Central Adriatic). Here we present, for the first time, a historical data set composed of 180 shallow wells drilled over the area in 1942 by a company named Azienda Lavorazione Bitumi Asfalti; we digitally reconstructed this data set, integrating it with field observations, laboratory measurements, and thin-section analysis. Using Petrel (mark of Schlumberger) three-dimensional software, we modeled the reservoir and the hydrocarbon distribution, also calculating volumes of hydrocarbons in place. In our work, we demonstrate the presence of these quite homogeneous, porous carbonate reservoirs over the whole region, and we identify internal reservoir geometries characterized by clinoforms, likely resulting from a large-scale depositional cross-bedding and progradation. We also infer a different function of faults in the hydrocarbon accumulations: major faults were able to create independent compartments during migration, whereas minor, more recent elements did not control hydrocarbon accumulation, likely postdating a main lower-Pliocene migration phase. We believe that the observations derived from our work can represent a good analog for carbonate-ramp reservoirs elsewhere, may help in identifying appropriate modeling solutions, and can be used as calibration for future renewed exploration efforts in the region, both onshore and offshore.

Miocene is a key interval in the global climate evolution as well as in the geodynamic evolution of the Mediterranean basin. Therefore, global and regional factors controlled Miocene Mediterranean oceanography, which, in turn, affected carbonate production. In this work, we review the Miocene paleocenographic evolution of the Mediterranean starting from its Sr and Nd isotope records. Secondly, we discuss Mediterranean shallow-water carbonate production changes to identify the role of oceanographic conditions in controlling carbonate systems' evolution. During Aquitanian, Sr and Nd isotope records attest an open Mediterranean, mainly fed by the Indian Ocean. From the late Burdigalian, the intermittent connection with the Indian Ocean changed the overall circulation in the basin, leading to higher residence time of waters and smaller water exchanges with the adjacent oceans. In this newly established paleoceanographic framework, regional factors such as volcanism, significantly affected Mediterranean seawater chemistry. Local tectonics led to the development of small sub-basins in the Eastern Mediterranean, characterized by restricted water exchanges from the Tortonian in the easternmost part, to the early Messinian, as attested by the deviation of the Sr isotope record of the proto-Adriatic basin. Larger Benthic Foraminifera (LBF) assemblages dominated carbonate production in the Aquitanian, while they were the most affected by the Indo-Pacific closure, showing a demise after the Burdigalian. With the LBF demise, red algae and bryozoans dominated carbonate ramps from the middle Miocene to the Tortonian. Bryozoans in particular spread during the Monterey Event, favoured by global and regional factors. During early to middle Miocene, corals formed mounds in the oligophotic zone or coral carpets controlled by local conditions. Conversely, in the late Tortonian-early Messinian, they developed as huge reef complexes in the Western and Central Mediterranean, with the exception of small restricted sub-basins, such as the proto-Adriatic basin, where red algae and small benthic foraminifera persisted.

The 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratio has been widely used as a physical tool to date and correlate carbonate successions due to the long Sr residence time in comparison with the ocean mixing time. If this method works on oceanic successions, marginal basins may show different Sr isotope records in comparison with the coeval ocean one due to sea-level variations, continental run-off and restricted water exchanges. In this work, we present the 87Sr/86Sr isotope record of the upper Miocene carbonate ramp of the Lithothamnion Limestone (Majella Mountain, central Apennines), as an example of the onset of restricted water exchanges between a marginal basin and the ocean water masses. The overall latemost Tortonian-early Messinian Sr isotope record of the Lithothamnion Limestone fits below the global reference line. This deviation has been interpreted as due to the strong control that freshwater input and enhanced continental run-off, linked to the migration of the Apennine accretionary wedge and foredeep system, have had on the central Adriatic water chemistry. These results imply that an accurate oceanographic and geodynamic framework along with diagenetic overprint investigation has to be taken into consideration prior to apply SIS on carbonate successions on marginal basins, even when facies analyses indicate fully marine conditions. This seems to be the case for the upper Miocene Central Mediterranean carbonate successions, but may have more general validity and be extended to other recent or past marginal basins.

The stratigraphic evolution of the Guadagnolo Fm, developed on the transition between the Latium-Abruzzi Platform and the Umbria Sabina Basin (central Apennines), was studied through facies and stable isotope analysis. Calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy allows to identify the Burdigalian-Langhian boundary, constraining the sections to the lower to middle Miocene. This interval consists of marly deposits forming the intermediate member of the formation dominated by sponge spicules, molluscs, bryozoans, benthic and planktonic foraminifers. This member is deposited in a distal outer ramp where the abundance of siliceous sponges has been attributed to the high seawater fertility coinciding with the Monterey event, enhanced by regional nutrient flux due to continental runoff and volcanism. The upper member is Serravallian and consists of bryozoan-dominated cross-bedded calcarenites deposited in a shallower environment of the outer ramp. A positive carbon isotope excursion was correlated with the Monterey event recorded in the Central Apennines carbonate ramps and from ODP sites. Five carbon maxima belonging to the Monterey Carbon Isotope Excursion have been identified. Four carbon isotope peaks fall in the spongolitic member, one in the upper member. The Carbon Maxima recorded within the spongolitic member show an attenuate isotope excursion compared with the pelagic and the carbonate platforms record. The weaker signal is due to the fractionation effect of primary producers of the photic zone and to the sponge release of 12C-enriched CO2 deriving from the oxidation of organic matter. Conversely, the largest positive carbon isotope excursion is recorded in the upper member, representative of a shallower environment, and it is due to the absence of sponges and the increased contribution of photosynthetic biota. The shoaling of the depositional environment is related to the global cooling recorded after 14 Ma, as evident also from the δ18O positive shift at the base of the upper member of the Guadagnolo Fm.

The Lithothamnion Limestone constitutes the uppermost carbonate unit of the Bolognano Formation outcropping in the Majella structure (Central Apennines, Italy). It represents the northern extension of the large Apulia Carbonate Platform and preserves an excellent record of the progressive decay of trophic conditions due to the approach of foredeep systems characterized by turbiditic siliciclastic sedimentation during the early Messinian. Sedimentological and compositional analyses were used to reconstruct the depositional model and evolution of platform environmental conditions. The profile is consistent with a homoclinal carbonate ramp, with a wide middle-ramp environment in which coralline algae, mainly forming the maerl facies, dominated carbonate production. This facies was associated with seagrass meadows colonizing the inner ramp. The outer ramp was characterized by bioturbated hemipelagic marl with planktonic foraminifera and pectinids in the aphotic zone. Three main stages of ramp evolution have been identified. During the first stage, the ramp was subjected to high-energy wave-dominated conditions, which favored the development of deep rip channels in which accumulations of vertebrate bones have been identified. In the second stage, maerl facies and seagrass meadows developed, initially in an oligotrophic setting, later followed by a slight reduction in light penetration. The third stage involved a general increase in fine terrigenous sediments, together with a further decrease in light and also by the spread of coralline algal bindstone facies. This elevated terrigenous input was associated with increased trophic conditions, as also shown by the occurrence of abundant plankton and low-oxygenated foraminiferal assemblages.

The stratigraphic architecture of the Bolognano Formation documents the evolution of the Majella carbonate platform in response to global and local changes that affected the Mediterranean area during the Oligocene–Miocene interval. The Bolognano Formation consists of a homoclinal ramp that developed in a warm, subtropical environment. Five different lithofacies associations have been identified: Lepidocyclina calcarenites, cherty marly limestones, bryozon calcarenites, hemipelagic marls and marly limestones, and Lithothamnion limestones. Each association corresponds to a single lithostratigraphic unit except for the Lepidocyclina calcarenites that form two distinct lithostratigraphic units ( Lepidocyclina calcarenites 1 and 2). These six units reflect alternation of shallow-water carbonate production and drowning. Specifically, two of the three stages of shallow-water carbonate production regard the development of wide dune fields within the middle ramp, one stage dominated by red algae and a sea-grass carbonate factory, whereas the two drowning phases are represented by marly cherty limestones and calcareous marls. A new biostratigraphic framework for Bolognano Formation is presented, based on high-resolution analysis of calcareous nannofossil assemblages, which proved to be very useful for biostratigraphic constraints also in shallow-water settings. Using this approach, we have linked the first drowning phase, late Chattian–Aquitanian p.p. in age, to western Mediterranean volcanism and the Mi-1 event, and the second drowning phase, late Burdigalian–Serravallian in age, to the closure of the Indo-Pacific passage and the occurrence of the global Monterey event. These results permit a new deciphering, in terms of sequence stratigraphy, of the Bolognano Formation that is interpreted as a 2nd-order super-sequence that can be subdivided into 3 transgressive–regressive sequences.

We would like to acknowledge Macreadie et al. (2017) for their interest in clarifying some key points on the processes involved in the balance of CO2 exerted by the seagrass ecosystems during the Cenozoic. However, their criticisms seem to be based on some misunderstandings regarding the biocalcification processes. So we take this opportunity to make clear some concepts on this topic.

The Middle to Late Miocene mixed carbonate-siliciclastic coastal wedge of the Pietra di Finale, unconformably overlying the Ligurian Alps succession, displays a carbonate portion dominated by Halimeda and Porites fragments that fall in the photozoan assemblages. Photozoan assemblages typically develop under tropical and oligotrophic conditions, while hetorozoan assemblages tend to thrive in high-nutrient settings. The Pietra di Finale Formation shows, however, that high weathering and an increase of nutrient inputs related to Alpine uplift and humid climatic conditions promoted Halimeda over the seagrass carbonate factory in the photic zone. The successful Halimeda proliferation was due to its efficient competition for nutrients, especially nitrogen. Thus, the Pietra di Finale Formation represents an interesting, counter-intuitive example in which increased nutrient concentrations promoted, instead of inhibited, a photozoan over a seagrass-related heterozoan carbonate production.

During the Oligocene, extensive carbonate platforms developed in the central Mediterranean. These areas were colonized by different organisms, being the coralline algae one of the most important contributors to the carbonate production. Red algae produced sediments in shallow seagrass environments, however dominate the mesophotic and oligophotic zones where produced rhodolith beds. The diffusion of red algae during the Oligocene was favoured by reduction in atmospheric CO2, a rise in seawater alkalinity and increasing Mg/Ca ratios. This chapter deals with these deposits analyzing the depositional models and the controlling factors accounting for the origin of rhodolith beds.

Sedimentary facies of seven Posidonia oceanica meadows of western Mediterranean Sea were investigated. Five meadows are located in the Tyrrhenian coast, two are placed in the western coast of Sardinia and Corsica. These meadows develop on soft and hard substrates, often forming "mattes", in areas characterized by different oceanography, morphology, and terrigenous inputs produced by coastal erosion and fluvial runoff. A total of five sedimentary facies have been recognized ranging from pure terrigenous to bioclastic: terrigenous sand to gravelly sand, bioclastic sands, skeletal gravelly sands, mixed siliciclastic-carbonate sands, well to moderately sorted skeletal siliciclastic sands. All of the sedimentary facies associated with P. oceanica are in the sand grain size. The gravelly fraction is generally subordinated and variable, whereas the muddy fraction is generally low. The very low frequencies of the muddy fraction can be attributed to re-suspension processes and to the lack of carbonate mud production. The rate of epiphytic carbonate production obtained by two of the investigated meadows averages 400 g m(-2) year(-1). This value is in the range of temperate Mediterranean as well as of tropical and subtropical seagrasses. The epiphytic carbonate production plus the calcareous biota living on seagrass substrate contributes to form mixed siliciclastic-carbonate sediments of the nearshore environment of the Mediterranean. Lastly, the carbonate production associated with seagrass was derived by biota belonging to the heterozoan assemblage, where aphotic organisms are dominant, together with oligophotic biota such as coralline algae and symbiont-bearing foraminifera. Consequently, in the well-illuminated seagrass settings, the prevalent skeletal assemblages is represented by the heterozoan association while the components of the photozoan assemblages are absent or subordinate. This a key point for the paleoenvironmental reconstruction of the photic zone in the fossil record. Because the skeletal components of many seagrass dwellers greatly contribute to the carbonate sediment production of photic shallow-water environments, the seagrass meadows became substantial places of carbonate production and C (organic and inorganic) sequestration during the Cenozoic.

This work discusses and interprets the factors responsible for the Oligocene–Miocene drowning of the Central Apennine platform deposits, based on facies and stable-isotope analyses of two representative stratigraphic sections. The Mediterranean carbonate platforms were affected during the Oligocene–Miocene boundary by a carbonate production crisis that was induced by global factors and amplified by regional events, such as volcanic activity. The positive δ13C shift observed in the studied sections corresponds to vertical facies changes reflecting the evolution from middle carbonate ramp to outer ramp-hemipelagic depositional environments. This drowning event is recorded not only in the Apennine platforms, but also in other Mediterranean platforms such as in southern Apulia, Sicily and Malta, and outside the Mediterranean Basin. The ~24–23.5 Ma Mi-1 glacial maximum may have had a significant influence on this drowning event because it was associated with high rates of accumulation of continent-derived sediments. The increased continental weathering and runoff sustained high trophic conditions. These probably were a consequence of the Aquitanian–Burdigalian volcanic activity in the Central-Western Mediterranean, that may have led to an increase in nutrient content in seawater and an increase in atmospheric and marine CO2 concentrations. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Marine seagrass angiosperms play an important role in carbon sequestration, removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and binding it as organic matter. Carbon is stored in the plants themselves, but also in the sediments both in inorganic and organic forms. The inorganic component is represented by carbonates produced by calcareous organisms living as epiphytes on seagrass leaves and rhizomes. In this paper, we find that the rate of seagrass epiphyte production (leaves and rhizomes), averages 400 g m-2 yr-1, as result of seagrass sampling at seven localities along the Mediterranean coasts, and related laboratory analysis. Seagrasses have appeared in the Late Cretaceous, becoming a place of remarkable carbonate production and C sequestration during the whole Cenozoic era. Here, we explore the potential contribution of seagrass as C sink on the atmospheric CO2 decrease by measuring changes in seagrass extent, which is directly associated with variations in the global coastal length associated with plate tectonics. We claim that global seagrass distribution significantly affected the atmospheric composition, particularly at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary, when the CO2 concentration fell to 400 ppm, i.e. the approximate value of current atmospheric CO2.

A mixed carbonate–siliciclastic succession developed on the southern margin of the Bonifacio Basin (Cala di Labra, SE Corsica) during the Burdigalian, in the margin of a back-arc setting which had formed during the Sardinia-Corsica block rotation. This shallow marine setting was fed by abundant nearshore siliciclastic supply, and substantial carbonate production/accumulation increased from the euphotic to the oligophotic zones. Two third-order depositional sequences (SD1, SD2) corresponding to Bur 3 and Bur4, are recorded in the sedimentary succession.

The Tortonian sedimentary succession of Menorca Island (Balears, Spain) includes two stratigraphic sequences: the lower Tortonian distally-steepened carbonate ramp and the coral reef complex of late Tortonian-early Messinian age. The boundary between the two sequences corresponds to Heterostegina -rich sediments in the western part of Menorca, and to a phosphatic hardground in the eastern part of the island. In the field, the hardground is represented by a dark-brown layer and a rough surface on top of the Tortonian Ramp deposits. Dark phosphate precipitates infill cracks and borings in the underlying limestone to a depth of up to 50 cm. The phosphatic hardground is overlain by planktonic rich wackestone to packstone, which penetrates downward into the fissures, borings, and vugs. This deposit is characterized also by grains of reworked phosphate, glauconite grains, small benthic foraminifers and is followed by tabular beds of bioclastic packstone to wackestone with abundant thin crusts of coralline algae. Based on the Amphistegina tests shapes and red algal assemblage of sediments below and above the hardground, and the lateral correlation with Heterostegina deposits, the bathymetry for the development of the phosphatization is estimated less than 100 m. The limited localization of the phosphatic hardground at the eastern side of the ramp indicates that a dynamic upwelling of deeper and nutrient-enriched waters favored development of a phosphatic hardground. This upwelling episode is representative of the paleoceanographic settings induced by the climate conditions of the Mediterranean area during the Tortonian.

This work illustrates the evolution the Lower Jurassic shallow-water carbonates known as the Calcare Massiccio Formation in the Central Apennines (Italy). The Calcare Massiccio is characterized by lateral and vertical variability in the facies associations, related to an articulated physiography of the Triassic to Lower Jurassic carbonate platform and to its tectonic evolution. This work documents the depositional environment changes during the platform evolution. Quantitative analysis on samples collected from three stratigraphic sections were performed through the Calcare Massiccio succession allowed up to the overlying Pliensbachian pelagites. Two type of carbonate sedimentation have been recognized: in the peritidal and shallow subtidal environments (Calcare Massiccio A) the carbonate production is dominated by microbial activity, while the carbonate sedimentation in a deeper environment of middle to outer ramp (Calcare Massiccio B), is dominated by a bioclastic sedimentation. The evolution from the Calcare Massiccio A to the B can be interpreted as the product of increase of accommodation that in turn produced a backstepping of carbonate facies belt, the photic microbial dominated peritidal facies developed on the persistent Latium-Abruzzi Platform while the bioclastic carbonate production factory settled on the structural highs resulting from the dismembering of the platform by syn-sedimentary tectonic. The bioclastic carbonate factory was not efficient in filling the available accommodation space produced by Sinemurian extensional tectonic. This inefficiency was amplified by the restricted area available for this factory in the small structural highs. These conditions were sufficient to predispose the platform to the drowning without invoke change in the trophic resource or change in the palaeoceanography.

This work is the result of detailed geological mapping and stratigraphic analysis of the Lepidocyclina Limestone in the northern sector of the Majella Mountains (Central Apennines). The Lepidocyclina Limestone represents an informal member of the Bolognano Formation (Chattian to Messinian in age). Four main lithofacies have been recognized: planar cross-bedded grainstone (FA); moderate-angle, cross-bedded grainstone to packstone (FB); sigmoidal cross-bedded grainstone (FC); and bioturbated marly packstone to wackestone (FD). A detailed description of the recognized lithofacies and facies association of the Lepidocyclina Limestone is given in this work, together with an interpretation of the corresponding depositional setting and a discussion of the related larger-scale processes. In summary, the depositional profile of the Lepidocyclina Limestone is consistent with a carbonate ramp, where most of the sediments appear to be parautochthonous in the middle ramp environment and autochthonous-dominated in the outer ramp environment. Palaeocurrent patterns indicate a strong, generally north–west basin-ward direction that affected the middle ramp environment and developed a wide, down-slope migrating dune field. Considering that the warm Oligocene climate of the Mediterranean area was favorable to tropical cyclone development, both in terms of frequency and intensity, it is suggested that return currents generated by strong winds or storms were common on the “Lepidocyclina” carbonate ramp, thus favoring the development of the observed dune field.

Overthepast15yearsithasbeendemonstratedthatcarbonaterampsreactinadistinctly different way to sea-level fluctuations than flat-topped carbonate platforms. Until now, mostsequencestratigraphicstudiesofcarbonaterampshaveconcentratedontemperate to cool-water carbonates and on tropical systems after a phase of forced regression. This study aims at characterizing a tropical, eutrophic carbonate ramp, the Miocene LatiumAbruzzi platform in the central Apennines. The stratigraphic architecture of the carbonaterampdepositedduringa5Myrperiodreflectstwo2 nd -orderrelativesea-levelcycles. In contrast, the architectural and facies patterns only reflect 3 rd -order sea-level fluctuationsintheinnerramp.Sea-levelfluctuationsthatcausechangesinlight-penetrationmay produce shifts from euphotic to oligophotic or even aphotic conditions that may be recorded as facies changes. The insensitivity of middle- to outer-ramp facies belts is the result of the carbonate-producing organisms in these parts of the ramp, and of the low productionofcarbonatesedimentsontheinnerramp,limitingtheexporttomiddle-and outer-ramp settings. On this type of carbonate ramp, most voluminous carbonate sediment production takes place in the oligophotic zone by rhodalgal associations, or in the aphotic zone by bryomol or molechfor associations. Thus, carbonate sediment accumulatesbelowthehydrodynamicbaselevelinawater-depthintervalthatmaybewiderthan the amplitude of the high-frequency sea-level fluctuation. Such ramps therefore appear not to record high-frequency sea-level fluctuations.

We investigated the distribution of the red algae assemblages along the depositional profile of the Attard carbonate ramp of Malta (Chattian). The Attard member is ascribed to the Lower Coralline Limestone Formation characterized by 4 members: Maghlaq, Attard, Xlendi and Il Mara. Coralline algae are present in the inner and middle ramp environments of the Attard member. Sporolithaceans and melobesioids dominate the inner ramp, while mastophoroids and peyssonneliaceans are subordinate. In the middle ramp the association of red algae is characterized by an increase of sporolithacenas and a decrease of melobesioids, mastophoroids and peyssonneliaceans. These assemblages are related to the depth gradient existing from the inner relatively shallow to the progressively deeper middle ramp. However, transportation of red algae down slope may have had an effect on the red algae associations. The shape, morphology and structure of rhodoliths in the inner ramp environment are indicative of high-energy conditions. Nevertheless localized sectors of inner ramp are characterized by morphologies typical of low energy probably related to the presence of areas colonized by seagrass. Rhodoliths from the middle ramp have characteristics of moderately highenergy. The presence of Sporolithon Heydrich and Lithoporelk (Foslie) Foslie indicates that the production of carbonate took place under tropical conditions. We suggest that the Mg/Ca ratios may had a control on the flourishing of coralline algae in the Oligocene carbonate factories situated in oligo- to mesotrophic conditions, whereas during Early to Middle Miocene times the trophic conditions were one of the main controlling factor.

The soft bottom of the Mediterranean continental shelf is characterized by a heterozoan skeletal assemblage (sensu [James, N.P., 1997. The cool-water carbonate depositional realm. In: James, N.P., Clarke, J. (Eds), Cool-water Carbonates. Spec. Publ. Soc. Sediment. Geol., vol. 56, pp.1–20.]). Although the contemporary presence of terrigenous and skeletal carbonate sediments has been well established [Tortora, P., 1996. Depositional and erosional coastal processes during the last postglacial sea-level rise: an example from the Central Tyrrhenian continental shelf (Italy). J. Sed. Res. 66, 391–405.; Fornos, J.J., Ahr, W.M., 1997. Temperate carbonates on a modern, low-energy, isolated ramp: the Balearic Platform, Spain. Journal of Sedimentary Research , 67, 364–373.; Fornos, J.J., Ahr, W.M., 2006. Present-day temperate carbonate sedimentation on the Balearic Platform, western Mediterranean: compositional and textural variation along a low-energy isolated ramp. In: Pedley, H.M., Carannante, G. (Eds.) 2006, Cool-water Carbonates: Depositional Systems and Palaeoenvironmental Controls. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 255, pp. 121–135], the interactions between carbonate and terrigenous–siliciclastic sedimentation has not been documented well enough. A total of 33 surface sediment samples from the Pontinian shelf (Tyrrhenian Sea, central Mediterranean) have been analysed. Sampling stations range from 15 to 250 mwd (meter water depth) and are located along five transects (PonzaW, PonzaNW, Ponza NE, Ponza E, Zannone), plus four samples collected around Palmarola Island. Sectors colonized by seagrass meadows have not been sampled. A total of 6 sedimentary facies (F) and 10 microfacies (mf) have been recognized by using component analyses, grain size percentage, sorting, carbonate content and authigenic mineralization rate. These facies and microfacies represent the Pontian Islands shelf sedimentation, in the interval between the upper infralittoral and the epibathyal zones that represent shelf-break and upper slope sedimentation. The Maerl facies (F4a,b; mf4a,b) and the skeletal sands (F2a,b; mf2a1, mf2a2, mf2b) fall within the circalittoral zone. The circalittoral zone in the water depth interval between 82 m and 112 m display relict facies (F6, mf6). Finally facies F5 (Siliciclastic sands) includes subfacies F5b (mf5b), located in the circalittoral zone at depths of 49 to 101 mwd and restricted to the western and eastern sectors of Ponza, and subfacies F5a in the upper infralittoral zone (15 mwd/25 mwd) where erosional processes prevail. Carbonate content analyses indicate that maximum carbonate production on the Pontinian shelf took place in the 60–80 mwd interval. Facies F4 (Maerl) represents the environment characterized by the highest carbonate production rates. In the Pontian area siliciclastic–carbonate mixing took place in the infralittoral zone and in the lower circalittoral zone. In the infralittoral zone erosional processes on the rocky shoreline produced lithoclasts and vulcanoclastic deposits that were reworked by wave-induced near-shore currents. In the lower circalittoral zone the prolific production by photic biota (red algae) ends, while skeletal remains of the aphotic environment mixes with planktonic sediments characterized by low carbonate values. Sand (63 μm–2 mm) is the dominant grain size class, however gravel-dominated facies (F4 Maerl) are present in water depths (50 to 112 mwd) which are significantly below the storm wave base. Glauconite mineralization appears on the Pontinian shelf from 50 mwd and increases in abundance along the deeper bathymetries. The compositional characteristics of relict facies F6 shows the concurrence of biota assemblages of the infralittoral and circalittoral zones, likely representing the record of the last Holocene transgressive event (18 ky) and expressed by the overlapping of components of different environments.

Lower Tortonian distally steepened carbonate ramp of Menorca mostly consists of foramol and rhodalgal facies deposited in inner-middle ramp, ramp slope and outer ramp settings. Red algae are abundant from the middle ramp to the lower part of the slope and their taxonomic assemblages are clearly related to the bathymetric position. Melobesioids percentage increases basinward, passing from 55.8% in the middle ramp to 97% in the toe of slope. Mastophoroids are more abundant in the middle ramp (43.1%) and decrease toward deeper paleoenvironments (1.2%). Lithophylloids and sporolithaceans appear as accessory components from the middle ramp to slope settings. The percentage of melobesioids and mastophoroids observed in the middle ramp suggest that growth of the rhodoliths started in a water depth below 10–20 m. The deepest occurrence of the rhodoliths is in the ramp slope environment, where the dominance of melobesioids and the low percentage of shallower-water subfamily suggests a water depth range of 70 to 100 m. Shape and structure of rhodoliths are indicative of high-energy conditions in all ramp settings and they do not reflect a decrease in hydrodynamic energy related to water depth increase. These conditions are related to the presence of unidirectional currents that produced cross-bedded grainstones existing in the middle ramp, ramp slope and at the toe of the ramp slope settings. The high percentage of mastophoroids in the shallowest environments and the presence of Lithoporella and Sporolithon in the coralline assemblages suggests that carbonate production took place in tropical waters.

Metre-scale siliciclastic–carbonate cycles are the basic depositional motif of the lower Miocene Guadagnolo Formation outcropping in the central Apennines. The mechanisms which formed the mixed-lithology cycles are still a matter of debate. The mixed siliciclastic–carbonate system discussed in this paper provides a new case study to illustrate the role of orbital forcing in controlling the facies evolution and cyclic stacking of small-scale sequences deposited on the outer sector of a ramp. Two sections are discussed that display mixed siliciclastics and carbonates arranged in upward-shallowing cycles. Each cycle shows an upward decrease in the terrigenous input and a parallel increase in benthic fauna. Time-series analyses indicate the cyclic carbonate-terrigenous pattern to be largely controlled by orbital forcing in the Milankovitch frequency band. Coupling of climate change and sea-level fluctuations in tune with orbital cycles are proposed as driving mechanisms.

The presence of foramol, rhodalgal and bryomol skeletal grain associations in ancient shallow-marine limestones is commonly interpreted as evidence for non-tropical palaeoclimate, despite temperature being only one of several factors influencing skeletal grain associations. Such interpretations neglect the multitude of factors other than temperature that influence carbonate-producing biota. These include nutrients, water energy, water transparency, depth of the sea floor, salinity, oxygen, Ca2+ and CO2 concentrations, Mg/Ca ratio, alkalinity, substrate requirements, competitive displacement as well as biological and evolutionary trends. This uniformitarian approach also disregards the probability that conditions of present-day biological systems may not be representative of past conditions of analogous systems. Here, the importance of considering these other factors is illustrated through two examples of carbonate platforms in the western Mediterranean. These platforms are dominated by foramol, rhodalgal and bryomol associations of Miocene age in spite of having formed in tropical conditions. The platforms discussed are: (1) the Lower Tortonian ramp on Menorca, Balearic Islands; and (2) the Lower–Middle Miocene ramps of the central Apennines, Italy. Evidence for tropical conditions in the Mediterranean during the period of growth of these platforms is provided by species of red algae and larger foraminifera, by data from coeval continental basins and by global oxygen isotope data.

The lower Miocene Latium–Abruzzi platform was a low-angle ramp that developed under tropical-to-subtropical conditions, but was dominated by bryomol and rhodalgal sediment associations. The Aquitanian to Serravallian sequence described here paraconformably overlies the Cretaceous limestones. It consists of a lowstand systems tract, a transgressive systems tract and a highstand systems tract. Based on facies analysis and on the light dependence of biotic associations, the ramp is divided into three parts: an inner ramp, a middle ramp and an outer ramp. The inner ramp facies are represented by a few metres of coral framestone, rhodolith floatstone–rudstone and balanid macroids floatstone without wave-related structures. The middle ramp consists of structureless bioclastic grainstone to packstone, floatstone and rudstone with rhodoliths and larger foraminifera. The outer ramp facies—proximal sector—are composed of crudely stratified bryozoan-dominated packstone to floatstone which extend over the whole platform. The outer ramp facies—intermediate sector—are represented by wackestone, packstone and rarely grainstone with foraminifera and echinoid fragments. The final depositional profile of the ramp was strongly influenced by the main organisms producing sediment. During the lowstand, the resulting profile is a ramp type. During the transgressive phase, the rapid spreading of the outer ramp facies belt, as a consequence of the enhanced productivity of the light-independent biota, is believed to be promoted by a change from oligotrophic to eutrophic conditions. Climate and/or tectonics are presumed to have played an important role in continental runoff and then in the nutrients delivery. During the highstand phase, the system returns to rates of production uniform throughout the platform. The high rates of carbonate production occurring in the aphotic zone are quite unusual in tropical settings and represent a provocative trend in apparent contrast with the common idea about the locus of the most significant carbonate production, as derived from the “tropical model”. The example described here shows that carbonate production and accumulation below the photic zone might be higher than in the shallow euphotic zone even in tropical conditions.

In the western part of the central Apennines, Lower–Middle Miocene carbonates were deposited on a tropical–subtropical carbonate ramp. They record two long-term cycles, the first of which is illustrated in this paper. Between 21 and 17.5 Ma, Miocene carbonates, paraconformably overlying the Cretaceous limestones, record a transgressive event during a time of global (2nd order) sea-level lowstand. It is postulated that this deviation is related to an increase in tectonic subsidence. Between 17.5 Ma and 16–15 Ma, with a progressive relative sea-level rise, the inner–middle ramp facies belt stepped back, whereas the bryozoan-dominated outer ramp facies belt stepped back but simultaneously prograded. This bloom of suspension-feeding organisms is interpreted to reflect an increased nutrient availability, hence a change from oligotrophic to eutrophic conditions. Strontium-isotope dates constrain correlation of the second phase with a eutrophic event possibly linked to the influence of the neighbouring Apenninic accretionary wedge and foredeep system.

Oligocene carbonate ramps and platforms are widespread and though they are important carbonate reservoirs, detailed studies on the facies organization, platform type and internal architecture are scarce. Within this context, the Chattian carbonate units cropping out in Salento (southern Italy) allow detailed study of the distribution of skeletal components and facies architecture. The lower Chattian Castro Limestone, previously considered as a fringing reef, is reinterpreted as a distally steepened ramp with a distal talus induced by a paleo-escarpment in the substrate. Epiphytic biota and sediment dweller organisms thriving in seagrass meadows dominated production in the shallow-water euphotic zone. Seawards, large rotalid foraminifers dominated a detritic mesophotic zone. Near the edge of the escarpment, also in the mesophotic zone, luxurious growth of corals built discrete mounds with no evidences of wave-resistant growth fabrics. Basinward, 25° to 30° dipping clinobeds abut against the escarpment where coral rudstone/floatstone textures resulted from downfall of corals and sediments. The upper Chattian Porto Badisco Calcarenite represents a homoclinal ramp dominated by packstone textures. In the euphotic inner ramp, autochthonous biota suggests the occurrence of extensive seagrass meadows. Basinward, large rotalid packstone and small coral mounds developed in mesophotic conditions, and rhodolithic floatstone to rudstone and large lepidocyclinid packstone characterize the sediments of the deeper oligophotic zone. Comminuted skeletal debris, depleted of light-dependent organisms, typifies deposition in the dysphotic/aphotic zone. In both examples, the middle ramp (meso-oligophotic zones) was the most prolific in terms of carbonate production, whereas shallow-water seagrass-related production (euphotic) was much less important. Corals built mounds, also in the mesophotic zone but never reached sea level. Hydrodynamic conditions in the meso-oligophotic zone are better explained by breaking of internal waves, and their induced up- and down-slope currents, instead of the surface storm waves.

The paper presents the characteristics of surface sediments in a seagrass-dominated environment of the inner shelf of the Pontinian Islands (Tyrrhenian Shelf, Central Mediterranean). The aims of this work are to characterize the carbonate production and sedimentary processes of a representative high-latitude, temperate Posidonia oceanica–dominated area, to discuss the role of seagrass in the siliciclastic–carbonate mixing processes, which provide analogs for interpreting the occurrence and importance of these types of deposits in the rock record. The majority of sediments are poorly sorted siliciclastic skeletal sand. Based on grain type and abundance and carbonate content, these deposits include six subfacies. The different subfacies reflect environmental changes within the seagrass environment associated with variations in light penetration and hydrodynamic conditions. Additionally, the seagrass facies range from purely carbonate to mixed carbonate–siliciclastic, depending on the amount of siliciclastic input and on the capacity of seagrasses to trap allochthonous sediments while hosting carbonate-producing biota. The type of substrate and the erosion and transport processes control the siliciclastic input. In these Pontinian seagrass meadows, sedimentary facies contain abundant siliciclastic grains produced by erosion of the volcanic substrate and trapped by seagrass blades and rhizomes. This Pontinian example illustrates that in heterozoan-dominated seagrass settings, mud-producing green algae are not present or are not calcifying, and consequently, seagrass deposits are much more grainy than photozoan counterparts. Ancient heterozoan tropical seagrass deposits likely will be discriminated from their temperate or subtropical counterparts only by careful taxonomic analysis of skeletal grains.

Photozoan and heterozoan skeletal assemblages are controlled by their trophic requirements (i.e. light-based photosynthesis versus other sources) and temperature. Photozoan associations tend to dominate tropical and subtropical waters, whereas heterozoan carbonate systems tend to occur in cooler waters and in localised areas that are affected by nutrient-rich upwelling or terrestrial runoff. Because of the wide climatic spectrum in which heterozoan carbonates are found, their interpretation is often problematic. We present a high-resolution analysis of the Attard Member of the Lower Coralline Limestone Formation (Upper Oligocene, Malta). The biotic associations and palaeolatitudinal reconstructions suggest that carbonate sedimentation took place in tropical waters under oligotrophic conditions. An important factor controlling the spread of heterozoan assemblages in the Late Oligocene of Malta seems to be related to the palaeoecology and evolution of zooxanthellate. The limited capacity of corals to thrive in high-light conditions and to form a wave-resistant reef promoted the diffusion of heterozoan assemblages.

Solar energy (light) is essential for organisms that host algal symbionts. Hence, growth of these organisms is restricted to the photic zone. Among the larger benthic foraminifers, large rotaliids show changes in their test shapes when depth increases, becoming thinner and flatter in deeper environments. This morphological variability is shown clearly in the genus Amphistegina. In oligotrophic waters from the Indo-Pacific region, test shape can be mathematically expressed by the function Zo = 2.592 T/D -2.293, where Zo represents depth and T/D is the thickness-to-diameter ratio. Amphistegina test-shape distribution is strongly correlated with light extinction with depth. Light penetration depends on water transparency, which diminishes as biological productivity increases. Thus, Zo must be corrected for mesotrophic environments where light penetration is more limited. In mesotrophic conditions, Amphistegina test shape can be expressed mathematically as Zm = 1.037 T/D -2.293 whereas in oligotrophic–mesotrophic transitional situations the equation is Zom = 2.046 T/D-2.293. Zo, Zm, and Zom can be used as quantitative bathymetric indicators. In the Latium–Abruzzi and Menorca carbonate platforms, paleodepths inferred from Zm and Zom, respectively, are highly consistent with those obtained from the distribution of the red-algae associations. Thus, paleobathymetric models for both carbonate platforms have been constructed using Amphistegina T/D values as main indicators, supported by information from red algae and other biota. According to the inferred paleobathymetry, in the Latium–Abruzzi platform the inner ramp went from shoreline down to 10 m depth, the middle ramp from 10 m down to 35 m depth, and finally, the outer ramp corresponds to depths greater than 35 m. The Menorca platform paleobathymetric reconstruction indicates an inner ramp from 0 m down to 20 m depth, a middle ramp from 20 m down to 40 m, a ramp slope from 40 m down to 80 m, and, finally, an outer ramp no deeper than 100 m. Bathymetric ranges in the Menorca platform, deeper than those from the Latium–Abruzzi ramp, are consistent with greater light penetration. The Amphistegina T/D index can also be used as a sediment-transport indicator. In the Menorca platform, sediment transport from the inner ramp down to the middle ramp, and even down to the lower ramp slope, are indicated by thick, ex situ Amphistegina specimens in relatively deep environments. The distribution of red algae and the co-occurrence of shallow organisms such as epiphytic foraminifers and fragments of hermatypic corals (Porites) confirm downslope transport and the role of the inner-ramp factory as an important sediment source.

The Oligocene represents a key interval during which coralline algae became dominant on carbonate ramps and luxuriant coral reefs emerged on a global scale. So far, few studies have considered the impact that these early reefs had on ramp development. Consequently, this study aimed at presenting a high-resolution analysis of the Attard Member of the Lower Coralline Limestone Formation (Late Oligocene, Malta) in order to decipher the internal and external factors controlling the architecture of a typical Late Oligocene platform. Excellent exposures of the Lower Coralline Limestone Formation occurring along continuous outcrops adjacent to the Victoria Lines Fault reveal in detail the three-dimensional distribution of the reef-associated facies. A total of four sedimentary facies have been recognized and are grouped into two depositional environments that correspond to the inner and middle carbonate ramp. The inner ramp was characterized by a very high-energy, shallow-water setting, influenced by tide and wave processes. This setting passed downslope into an inner-ramp depositional environment which was colonized by seagrass and interfingered with adjacent areas containing scattered corals. The middle ramp lithofacies were deposited in the oligophotic zone, the sediments being generated from combined in situ production and sediments swept from the shallower inner ramp by currents. Compositional characteristics and facies distributions of the Attard ramp are more similar to the Miocene ramps than to those of the Eocene. An important factor controlling this similarity may be the expansion of the seagrass colonization within the euphotic zone. This expansion may have commenced in the Late Oligocene and was associated with a concomitant reduction in the aerial extent of the larger benthonic foraminifera facies. Stacking-pattern analysis shows that the depositional units (parasequences) at the study section are arranged into transgressive–regressive facies cycles. This cyclicity is superimposed on the overall regressive phase recorded by the Attard succession. Furthermore, a minor highstand (correlated with the Ru4/Ch1 sequence) and subsequent minor lowstand (Ch2 sequence) have been recognized. The biota assemblages of the Attard Member suggest that carbonate sedimentation took place in subtropical waters and oligotrophic to slightly mesotrophic conditions. The apparent low capacity of corals to form wave-resistant reef structures is considered to have been a significant factor affecting substrate stability at this time. The resulting lack of resistant mid-ramp reef frameworks left this zone exposed to wave and storm activity, thereby encouraging the widespread development of coralline algal associations dominated by rhodoliths.

In carbonate depositional environments, sediment is mostly produced by different groups of organisms. Ecological parameters, thus, play a major role controlling carbonate production. In the present work, carbonate-producing biota, especially foraminifers, are studied to construct a depositional model and paleoecological interpretation of the lower Tortonian distally steepened ramp of Menorca (Balearic Islands, Spain). This carbonate platform corresponds to a highstand systems track prograding and aggrading over a Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and, locally, lower Tertiary basement. Outcrops are excellently exposed in the southern part of the island. Five facies associations are observed, which, in downdip direction, correspond to inner ramp, middle ramp, ramp slope, toe of the slope, and outer ramp. Samples have been studied using point counting of 102 thin sections. Six foraminiferal assemblages have been distinguished. Eight microfacies are identified (IR.1, IR.2, MR, URS, LRS, TS.1, TS.2, and OR), based on the abundance and ecological significance of the foraminifers (large benthic foraminifers, epiphytics, low-oxygen indicators, and planktonics) and other carbonate-producing organisms (echinoids, mollusks, barnacles, bryozoans, serpulids, coral genus Porites, and green and red algae). Seagrass meadows in the inner ramp correspond to the euphotic carbonate factory, whereas red algae and large benthic foraminifers dominate the oligophotic carbonate factory in the middle ramp and upper ramp slope. Microfacies composition verified intense sediment-transport processes from inner and middle ramp down to lower ramp slope, toe of the slope, and outer ramp. Finally, microfacies analysis also indicates that carbonate-production took place in warm-water conditions, in oligotrophic-to-mesotrophic waters.

Convolute bedding—pillow horizons—of likely seismic origin are identified in a bioclastic carbonate succession, the Guadagnolo Formation, in the central Apennine Mountains of Italy. These sediments, which were deposited in a carbonate-ramp environment, are from Burdigalian to Langhian (Relizian) in age. The lower part, about 500 m thick, consists of marlstones, marly limestones, and calcarenites, representing cyclic, shallow-water, coarsening-upward sequences. The second part, about 100 m thick, is dominated by prograding bodies of calcarenites. The horizons containing the pillow beds are in the topmost of the lower part, about 30 m below the base of the overlying calcarenites. They are present at the same stratigraphic position from the Prenestini to the Ruffi Mountains across a distance of about 20 km. Pillows, 20 cm to more than 1 m thick, are present in all the deformed layers and consist of marly calcarenites, which differ texturally from the enclosing matrix. They are regarded as the product of deformation ensuing from liquefaction of a denser layer overlying a lighter, silty layer that is richer in clay. These structures are interpreted to reflect liquefaction processes induced by seismic shocks, and they correlate well with coeval Miocene tectonism in this sector of the Apennines. Mariotti, G., Corda, L., Brandano, M., and Civitelli, G., 2002, Indicators of paleoseismicity in the lower to middle Miocene Guadagnolo Formation, central Apennines, Italy, in Ettensohn, F.R., Rast, N., and Brett, C.E., eds., Ancient seismites: Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America Special Paper 359, p. 87–98.

In this work, we investigate the role of hydrocarbons in changing the petrophysical properties of rocks by merging laboratory measurements, outcrops characterization, and subsurface data focusing on a carbonate-bearing reservoir (Bolognano Formation) of the Majella massif. This reservoir represents an interesting analogue for subsurface carbonate reservoirs and is made of high porosity (up to 32%) ramp calcarenites saturated by hydrocarbon in form of bitumen. We have characterized in the laboratory density, porosity, compressive strength, Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of both clean and heavy oil-bearing carbonate rocks of the Bolognano Formation. At ambient pressure the Vp are in the range of 3.49 km/s to 5.06 km/s for clean samples with an inverse relation with porosity, whilst the Vp range for HHC-bearing rocks are from 3.56 km/s to 4.56 km/s without any relation with measured porosity. These data show that porosity and presence of HHCs within the samples both affects seismic waves velocity. In particular, Vp and the derived dynamic Young's modulus generally strongly decrease with increasing porosity for clean samples and, for a fixed porosity, tends to increase with the presence of heavy-oil. This is confirmed also at higher (up to 100 MPa) confining pressure that has not a significant effect on Vp and Vs. Cyclic loading-unloading experiments show that the average compressive strength is 25 MPa and 38 MPa and average static Young's modulus are 5.7 GPa and 9.9 GPa, for clean and HHC-bearing samples respectively. Additionally, the permanent strain is always larger for clean samples. Field work, consisting in measuring fracture orientation in 11 outcrops of the same lithology, shows that both heavy oil-bearing and clean outcrops are characterized by two main trends NW-SE and NNE-SSW. However, the spacing data show that heavy-oil-bearing outcrops are much less fractured respect to clean outcrops. This suggests, assuming that the deformation occurred under the same stress state, that heavy oil-bearing outcrops are stiffer respect to clean outcrops, as supported by the laboratory measurements. We thus infer that in the study area hydrocarbons migration predates the last stage of deformation, limiting the fracturing in bitumen-bearing portions of the Bolognano Formation. At regional scale, the presence of buried oil fields located few kilometres away from the heavy-oil-bearing outcrops and pertaining to the same petroleum system, suggests a good lateral continuity of the reservoir giving clues about the key role played by primary porosity in the secondary migration that acted in this area.