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The rebirth of modern analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) began in 1990s. Since then many advanced AUC detectors have been developed that provide a vast range of versatile choices when characterizing the physical and chemical features of macromolecules. In addition, there have been remarkable advances in software that allow the analysis of AUC data using more sophisticated models, including quaternary structures, conformational changes, and biomolecular interactions. Here we report the application of AUC to protein size-and-shape distribution analysis and structure-and-function analysis in the presence of ligands or lipids. Using band-sedimentation velocity, quaternary structural changes and an enzyme's catalytic activity can be observed simultaneously. This provides direct insights into the correlation between quaternary structure and catalytic activity of the enzyme. On the other hand, also in this study, we have applied size-and-shape distribution analysis to a lipid-binding protein in either an aqueous or lipid environment. The sedimentation velocity data for the protein with or without lipid were evaluated using the c(s,f(r)) two-dimensional distribution model, which provides a precise and quantitative means of analyzing the protein's conformational changes.

The biophysical properties of Bacillus kaustophilus leucyl aminopeptidase (BkLAP) were examined in terms of analytical ultracentrifugation, fluorescence spectroscopy, and circular dichroism. By using the analytical ultracentrifuge, we demonstrated that tetrameric BkLAP exists as the major form in solution at protein concentration of 1.5 mg/ml at pH 8.0. The native enzyme started to unfold beyond ~1 M GdnHCl and reached an unfolded intermediate with [GdnHCl](1/2) at 1.8 M. Thermal unfolding of BkLAP was found to be highly irreversible and led to a marked formation of aggregates.

Pigeon liver malic enzyme was inactivated and cleaved at Asp141, Asp194, and Asp464 by the Cu2+-ascorbate system in acidic environment. Site-specific mutagenesis was performed at these putative metal-binding sites. Three point mutants, D141N, D194N, and D464N; three double mutants, D(141,194)N, D(194,464)N, and D(141,464)N; and a triple mutant, D(141,194,464)N; as well as the wild-type malic enzyme (WT) were successfully cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli cells. All recombinant enzymes, except the triple mutant, were purified to apparent homogeneity by successive Q-Sepharose and adenosine-2',5'-bisphosphate-agarose columns. The mutants showed similar apparent Km,NADP values to that of the WT. The Km,Mal value was increased in the D141N and D194N mutants. The Km,Mn value, on the other hand, was increased only in the D141N mutant by 14-fold, corresponding to approximately 1.6 kcal/mol for the Asp141-Mn2+ binding energy. Substrate inhibition by L-malate was only observed in WT, D464N, and D(141,464)N. Initial velocity experiments were performed to derive the various kinetic parameters. The possible interactions between Asp141, Asp194, and Asp464 were analyzed by the double-mutation cycles and triple-mutation box. There are synergistic weakening interactions between Asp141 and Asp194 in the metal binding that impel the D(141,194)N double mutant to an overall specificity constant [k(cat)/(Kd,Mn Km,Mal Km,NADP)] at least four orders of magnitude smaller than the WT value. This difference corresponds to an increase of 6.38 kcal/mol energy barrier for the catalytic efficiency. Mutation at Asp464, on the other hand, has partial additivity on the mutations at Asp141 and Asp194. The overall specificity constants for the double mutants D(194,464)N and D(141,464)N or the triple mutant D(141,194,464)N were decreased by only 10- to 100-fold compared to the WT. These results strongly suggest the involvement of Asp141 in the Mn2+-L-malate binding for the pigeon liver malic enzyme. The Asp194 and Asp464, which may be oxidized by nonspecific binding of Cu2+, are involved in the Mn2+-L-malate binding or catalysis indirectly by modulating the binding affinity of Asp141 with the Mn2+.

The dimeric interface of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus main protease is a potential target for the anti-SARS drug development. We have generated C-terminal truncated mutants by serial truncations. The quaternary structure of the enzyme was analyzed using both sedimentation velocity and sedimentation equilibrium analytical ultracentrifugation. Global analysis of the combined results showed that truncation of C-terminus from 306 to 300 had no appreciable effect on the quaternary structure, and the enzyme remained catalytically active. However, further deletion of Gln-299 or Arg-298 drastically decreased the enzyme activity to 1–2% of wild type (WT), and the major form was a monomeric one. Detailed analysis of the point mutants of these two amino acid residues and their nearby hydrogen bond partner Ser-123 and Ser-139 revealed a strong correlation between the enzyme activity loss and dimer dissociation.

The papain-like protease of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (PLpro) (EC 3.4.22.46) is essential for the viral life cycle and therefore represents an important antiviral target. We have identified 6MP and 6TG as reversible and slow-binding inhibitors of SARS-CoV PLpro, which is the first report about small molecule reversible inhibitors of PLpro. The inhibition mechanism was investigated by kinetic measurements and computer docking. Both compounds are competitive, selective, and reversible inhibitors of the PLpro with K(is) values approximately 10 to 20 microM. A structure-function relationship study has identified the thiocarbonyl moiety of 6MP or 6TG as the active pharmacophore essential for these inhibitions, which has not been reported before. The inhibition is selective because these compounds do not exert significant inhibitory effects against other cysteine proteases, including SARS-CoV 3CLpro and several cathepsins. Thus, our results present the first potential chemical leads against SARS-CoV PLpro, which might be used as lead compounds for further optimization to enhance their potency against SARS-CoV. Both 6MP and 6TG are still used extensively in clinics, especially for children with acute lymphoblastic or myeloblastic leukemia. In light of the possible inhibition against subset of cysteine proteases, our study has emphasized the importance to study in depth these drug actions in vivo.

Summary Cleavage stimulation factor (CstF) is a heterotrimeric protein complex essential for polyadenylation of mRNA precursors. The 77 kDa subunit, CstF-77, is known to mediate interactions with the other two subunits of CstF as well as with other components of the polyadenylation machinery. We report here the crystal structure of the HAT ( h alf a T PR) domain of murine CstF-77, as well as its C-terminal subdomain. Structural and biochemical studies show that the HAT domain consists of two subdomains, HAT-N and HAT-C domains, with drastically different orientations of their helical motifs. The structures reveal a highly elongated dimer, spanning 165 A, with the dimerization mediated by the HAT-C domain. Light-scattering studies, yeast two-hybrid assays, and analytical ultracentrifugation measurements confirm this self-association. The mode of dimerization and the relative arrangement of the HAT-N and HAT-C domains are unique to CstF-77. Our data support a role for CstF dimerization in pre-mRNA 3′ end processing.

Chemical denaturant sensitivity of the dimeric main protease from severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus to guanidinium chloride was examined in terms of fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism, analytical ultracentrifuge, and enzyme activity change. The dimeric enzyme dissociated at guanidinium chloride concentration of

DPP8 belongs to the family of prolyl dipeptidases, which are capable of cleaving the peptide bond after a penultimate proline residue. Unlike DPP-IV, a drug target for type II diabetes, no information is available on the crystal structure of DPP8, the regulation of its enzymatic activity, or its substrate specificity. In this study, using analytical ultracentrifugation and native gel electrophoresis, we show that the DPP8 protein is predominantly dimeric when purified or in the cell extracts. Four conserved residues in the C-terminal loop of DPP8 (Phe(822), Val(833), Tyr(844), and His(859)), corresponding to those located at the dimer interface of DPP-IV, were individually mutated to Ala. Surprisingly, unlike DPP-IV, these single-site mutations abolished the enzymatic activity of DPP8 without disrupting its quaternary structure, indicating that dimerization itself is not sufficient for the optimal enzymatic activity of DPP8. Moreover, these mutations not only decreased k(cat), as did the corresponding DPP-IV mutations, but also dramatically increased K(m). We further show that the K(m) effect is independent of the substrate assayed. Finally, we identified the distinctive and strict substrate selectivity of DPP8 for hydrophobic or basic residues at the P2 site, which is in sharp contrast to the much less discriminative substrate specificity of DPP-IV. Our study has identified the residues absolutely required for the optimal activity of DPP8 and its unique substrate specificity. This study extends the functional importance of the C-terminal loop to the whole family of prolyl dipeptidases.

Malic enzyme catalyses the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH and the decarboxylation of l-malate to pyruvate through a general acid/base mechanism. Previous kinetic and structural studies differ in their interpretation of the amino acids responsible for the general acid/base mechanism. To resolve this discrepancy, we used site-directed mutagenesis and kinetic analysis to study four conserved carboxylic amino acids. With the D257A mutant, the Km for Mn2+ and the kcat decreased relative to those of the wild-type by sevenfold and 28-fold, respectively. With the E234A mutant, the Km for Mg2+ and l-malate increased relative to those of the wild-type by 87-fold and 49-fold, respectively, and the kcat remained unaltered, which suggests that the E234 residue plays a critical role in bivalent metal ion binding. The kcat for the D235A and D258A mutants decreased relative to that of the wild-type by 7800-fold and 5200-fold, respectively, for the overall reaction, by 800-fold and 570-fold, respectively, for the pyruvate reduction partial reaction, and by 371-fold and 151-fold, respectively, for the oxaloacetate decarboxylation. The activities of the overall reaction and the pyruvate reduction partial reaction of the D258A mutant were rescued by the presence of 50 mm sodium azide. In contrast, small free acids did not have a rescue effect on the activities of the E234A, D235A, and D257A mutants. These data suggest that D258 may act as a general base to extract the hydrogen of the C2 hydroxy group of l-malate with the aid of D235-chelated Mn2+ to polarize the hydroxyl group.

The human mitochondrial NAD(P)+-dependent malic enzyme (m-NAD-ME) is a malic enzyme isoform with dual cofactor specificity and substrate binding cooperativity. Previous kinetic studies have suggested that Lys362 in the pigeon cytosolic NADP+-dependent malic enzyme has remarkable effects on the binding of NADP+ to the enzyme and on the catalytic power of the enzyme (Kuo, C. C., Tsai, L. C., Chin, T. Y., Chang, G.-G., and Chou, W. Y. (2000) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 270, 821-825). In this study, we investigate the important role of Gln362 in the transformation of cofactor specificity from NAD+ to NADP+ in human m-NAD-ME. Our kinetic data clearly indicate that the Q362K mutant shifted its cofactor preference from NAD+ to NADP+. The Km(NADP) and kcat(NADP) values for this mutant were reduced by 4-6-fold and increased by 5-10-fold, respectively, compared with those for the wild-type enzyme. Furthermore, up to a 2-fold reduction in Km(NADP)/Km(NAD) and elevation of kcat(NADP)/kcat(NAD) were observed for the Q362K enzyme. Mutation of Gln362 to Ala or Asn did not shift its cofactor preference. The Km(NADP)/Km(NAD) and kcat(NADP)/kcat(NAD) values for Q362A and Q362N were comparable with those for the wild-type enzyme. The ΔG values for Q362A and Q362N with either NAD+ or NADP+ were positive, indicating that substitution of Gln with Ala or Asn at position 362 brings about unfavorable cofactor binding at the active site and thus significantly reduces the catalytic efficiency. Our data also indicate that the cooperative binding of malate became insignificant in human m-NAD-ME upon mutation of Gln362 to Lys because the sigmoidal phenomenon appearing in the wild-type enzyme was much less obvious that that in Q362K. Therefore, mutation of Gln362 to Lys in human m-NAD-ME alters its kinetic properties of cofactor preference, malate binding cooperativity, and allosteric regulation by fumarate. However, the other Gln362 mutants, Q362A and Q362N, have conserved malate binding cooperativity and NAD+ specificity. In this study, we provide clear evidence that the single mutation of Gln362 to Lys in human m-NAD-ME changes it to an NADP+-dependent enzyme, which is characteristic because it is non-allosteric, non-cooperative, and NADP+-specific.

Acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylases (ACCs) have crucial roles in fatty acid metabolism. The biotin carboxylase (BC) subunit of Escherichia coli ACC is believed to be active only as a dimer, although the crystal structure shows that the active site of each monomer is 25 A from the dimer interface. We report here biochemical, biophysical, and structural characterizations of BC carrying single-site mutations in the dimer interface. Our studies demonstrate that two of the mutants, R19E and E23R, are monomeric in solution but have only a 3-fold loss in catalytic activity. The crystal structures of the E23R and F363A mutants show that they can still form the correct dimer at high concentrations. Our data suggest that dimerization is not an absolute requirement for the catalytic activity of the E. coli BC subunit, and we propose a new model for the molecular mechanism of action for BC in multisubunit and multidomain ACCs.

Human mitochondrial NAD(P)+-dependent malate dehydrogenase (decarboxylating) (malic enzyme) can be specifically and allosterically activated by fumarate. X-ray crystal structures have revealed conformational changes in the enzyme in the absence and in the presence of fumarate. Previous studies have indicated that fumarate is bound to the allosteric pocket via Arg67 and Arg91. Mutation of these residues almost abolishes the activating effect of fumarate. However, these amino acid residues are conserved in some enzymes that are not activated by fumarate, suggesting that there may be additional factors controlling the activation mechanism. In the present study, we tried to delineate the detailed molecular mechanism of activation of the enzyme by fumarate. Site-directed mutagenesis was used to replace Asp102, which is one of the charged amino acids in the fumarate binding pocket and is not conserved in other decarboxylating malate dehydrogenases. In order to explore the charge effect of this residue, Asp102 was replaced by alanine, glutamate or lysine. Our experimental data clearly indicate the importance of Asp102 for activation by fumarate. Mutation of Asp102 to Ala or Lys significantly attenuated the activating effect of fumarate on the enzyme. Kinetic parameters indicate that the effect of fumarate was mainly to decrease the Km values for malate, Mg2+ and NAD+, but it did not notably elevate kcat. The apparent substrate Km values were reduced by increasing concentrations of fumarate. Furthermore, the greatest effect of fumarate activation was apparent at low malate, Mg2+ or NAD+ concentrations. The Kact values were reduced with increasing concentrations of malate, Mg2+ and NAD+. The Asp102 mutants, however, are much less sensitive to regulation by fumarate. Mutation of Asp102 leads to the desensitization of the co-operative effect between fumarate and substrates of the enzyme.

The expression of retinoic acid-induced gene 1 (RIG1), a class II tumor suppressor gene, is induced in cells treated with retinoids. RIG1 has been shown to express ubiquitously and the increased expression of this gene appears to suppress cell proliferation. Recent studies also demonstrated that this gene may play an important role in cell differentiation and the progression of cancer. In spite of the remarkable regulatory role of this protein, the molecular mechanism of RIG1 expression induced by retinoids remains to be clarified. The present study was designed to study the molecular mechanism underlying the all-trans retinoic acid (atRA)-mediated induction of RIG1 gene expression. Polymerase chain reaction was used to generate a total of 10 luciferase constructs that contain various fragments of the RIG1 5'-genomic region. These constructs were then transfected into human gastric cancer SC-M1 and breast cancer T47D cells for transactivation analysis. atRA exhibited a significant induction in luciferase activity only through the -4910/-5509 fragment of the 5'-genomic region of RIG1 gene relative to the translation initiation site. Further analysis of this promoter fragment indicated that the primary atRA response region is located in between -5048 and -5403 of the RIG1 gene. Within this region, a direct repeatmore » sequence with five nucleotide spacing, 5'-TGACCTctattTGCCCT-3' (DR5, -5243/-5259), and an inverted repeat sequence with six nucleotide spacing, 5'-AGGCCAtggtaaTGGCCT-3' (IR6, -5323/-5340), were identified. Deletion and mutation of the DR5, but not the IR6 element, abolished the atRA-mediated activity. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays with nuclear extract from atRA-treated cells indicated the binding of retinoic acid receptor (RAR) and retinoid X receptor (RXR) heterodimers specifically to this response element. In addition to the functional DR5, the region contains many other potential sequence elements that are required to maximize the atRA-mediated induction. Taken together, we have identified and characterized the functional atRA response element that is responsible for the atRA-mediated induction of RIG1 gene.« less

Human apolipoprotein E (apoE) is a 299-amino-acid protein with a molecular weight of 34 kDa. The difference between the apoE3 and apoE4 isoforms is a single residue substitution involving a Cys-Arg replacement at residue 112. ApoE4 is positively associated with atherosclerosis and late-onset and sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD). ApoE4 and its C-terminal truncated fragments have been found in the senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain of AD patients. However, detail structural information regarding isoform and domain interaction remains poorly understood. We prepared full-length, N-, and C-terminal truncated apoE3 and apoE4 proteins and studied their structural variation. Sedimentation velocity and continuous size distribution analysis using analytical ultracentrifugation revealed apoE3(72-299) as consisting of a major species with a sedimentation coefficient of 5.9. ApoE4(72-299) showed a wider and more complicated species distribution. Both apoE3 and E4 N-terminal domain (1-191) existed with monomers as the major component together with some tetramer. The oligomerization and aggregation of apoE protein increased when the C-terminal domain (192-271) was incorporated. The structural influence of the C-terminal domain on apoE is to assist self-association with no significant isoform preference. Circular dichroism and fluorescence studies demonstrated that apoE4(72-299) possessed a more alpha-helical structure with more hydrophobic residue exposure. The structural variation of the N-terminal truncated apoE3 and apoE4 protein provides useful information that helps to explain the greater aggregation of the apoE4 isoform and thus has implication for the involvement of apoE4 in AD.

Guanine deaminase, a key enzyme in the nucleotide metabolism, catalyzes the hydrolytic deamination of guanine into xanthine. The crystal structure of the 156-residue guanine deaminase from Bacillus subtilis has been solved at 1.17-A resolution. Unexpectedly, the C-terminal segment is swapped to form an intersubunit active site and an intertwined dimer with an extensive interface of 3900 A2 per monomer. The essential zinc ion is ligated by a water molecule together with His53, Cys83, and Cys86. A transition state analog was modeled into the active site cavity based on the tightly bound imidazole and water molecules, allowing identification of the conserved deamination mechanism and specific substrate recognition by Asp114 and Tyr156′. The closed conformation also reveals that substrate binding seals the active site entrance, which is controlled by the C-terminal tail. Therefore, the domain swapping has not only facilitated the dimerization but has also ensured specific substrate recognition. Finally, a detailed structural comparison of the cytidine deaminase superfamily illustrates the functional versatility of the divergent active sites found in the guanine, cytosine, and cytidine deaminases and suggests putative specific substrate-interacting residues for other members such as dCMP deaminases.

Human placental alkaline phosphatase was successfully cloned in the yeast system Pichia pastoris. The recombinant enzyme was over-expressed as a secreted protein in the cultured medium. The enzyme was extremely stable, which resulted in a total recovery of the enzyme activity after the purification process. The purified enzyme preparation was apparently homogeneous as examined by the polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, analytical gel-permeation chromatography, and analytical ultracentrifugation. The final enzyme preparation showed a purification of 803-fold from the culture medium with a specific activity of 578 U/mg of protein. Fluorescence spectroscopic analyses showed multiple unfolding steps in the urea denaturation process of the homodimeric recombinant enzyme. Extensive conformational change of the enzyme in urea was detected by the analytical ultracentrifugation and the size-exclusive chromatography. The quaternary structure of the enzyme is quite stable. No indication of dissociation was observed after extensive tertiary structural changes.

Human mitochondrial malic enzyme is a regulatory enzyme with ATP as an inhibitor. Structural studies reveal that the enzyme has two ATP-binding sites, one at the NAD(+)-binding site in the active center and the other at the exo site in the tetramer interface. Inhibition of the enzyme activity is due to the competition between ATP and NAD(+) for the nucleotide-binding site at the active center with an inhibition constant of 81 microM. Binding of the ATP molecule at the exo site, on the other hand, is important for the maintenance of the quaternary structural integrity. The enzyme exists in solution at neutral pH and at equilibrium of the dimer and tetramer with a dissociation constant (K(TD)) of 0.67 microM. ATP, at a physiological concentration, shifts the equilibrium toward tetramer and decreases the K(TD) by many orders of magnitude. Mutation of a single residue Arg542 at the tetrameric interfacial exo site resulted in dimeric mutants. ATP thus has dual functional roles in the mitochondrial malic enzyme.

Human mitochondrial NAD(P)+-dependent malic enzyme was strongly inhibited by Lu3+. The X-ray crystal structures indicated a structural change between the metal-free and Lu3+-containing enzymes (Yang Z, Batra R, Floyd DL, Hung HC, Chang GG, Tong L. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000;274:440-444). We characterized the reversible slow-binding mechanism and the structural interconversion between Mn2+- and Lu3+-containing human mitochondrial malic enzymes. When Lu3+ was added, the activity of the human enzyme showed a downward curve over time, similar to that of the pigeon enzyme. The rate of the transformation (k(obs)) from the initial rate to the steady-state rate increased hyperbolically with the concentration of Lu3+, suggesting the involvement of an isomerization step. Lu3+ had a much higher affinity for the isomerized form (K*(i,Lu (app)) = 4.8 microM) than that of the native form (K(i,Lu (app)) = 148 microM). When an excess of Mn2+ was added to the Lu3+-inhibited enzyme, assays of the kinetic activity showed an upward trend, indicating reactivation. This result also indicated that the reactivation was a slow process. Fluorescence quenching experiments confirmed that the Lu3+-induced isomerization was completely reversible. The dynamic quenching constants for the metal-free, Mn2+-containing, and Lu3+-containing enzyme were 3.08, 3.07, and 3.8 M(-1), respectively. When the Lu3+-containing enzyme was treated with excess Mn2+, the dynamic quenching constant returned to the original value (3.09 M(-1)). These results indicated that binding of Mn2+ did not induce any conformational change in the enzyme. The open form transformed to the closed form only after substrate binding. Lu3+, on the other hand, transformed the open form into a catalytically inactive form. Excess Mn2+ could replace Lu3+ in the metal binding site and convert the inactive form back into the open form. This reversible process was slow in both directions because of the same but opposite structural change involved.

Duck delta2-crystallin is a soluble tetrameric lens protein. In the presence of guanidinium hydrochloride (GdnHCl), it undergoes stepwise dissociation and unfolding. Gel-filtration chromatography and sedimentation velocity analysis has demonstrated the dissociation of the tetramer protein to a monomeric intermediate with a dissociation constant of 0.34 microM3. Dimers were also detected during the dissociation and refolding processes. The sharp enhancement of 1-anilinonaphthalene-8-sulfonic acid (ANS) fluorescence at 1 M GdnHCl strongly suggested that the dissociated monomers were in a molten globule state under these conditions. The similar binding affinity (approximately 60 microM) of ANS to protein in the presence or absence of GdnHCl suggested the potential assembly of crystallins via hydrophobic interactions, which might also produce off-pathway aggregates in higher protein concentrations. The dynamic quenching constant corresponding to GdnHCl concentration followed a multistate unfolding model implying that the solvent accessibility of tryptophans was a sensitive probe for analyzing delta2-crystallin unfolding.

Pigeon cytosolic malic enzyme has a double dimer quaternary structure with three tryptophanyl residues in each monomer distributed in different structural domains. The enzyme showed a three-state unfolding phenomenon upon increasing the urea concentration (Chang, H. C., Chou, W. Y., and Chang, G. G. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277, 4663-4671). At urea concentration of 4-4.5 m, where the intermediate form was detected, the enzyme existed as partially unfolded dimers, which were easily polymerized. Mn2+ provided full protection against the polymerization. To further characterize this phenomenon, three mutants of the enzyme (W129, W321, and W548), each with only one tryptophanyl residue left, were constructed. All these mutants were successfully overexpressed in Escherichia coli cells and purified to homogeneity. Changes in the circular dichroism spectra of all mutants revealed a three-state urea-unfolding process in the absence of Mn2+. In the presence of 4 mm Mn2+, W548 and wild type (WT) enzymes shifted to monophasic, while W129 and W321 were still biphasic. Similar results were obtained from the fluorescence spectral changes, except for W321, which showed monophasic denaturation curve with or without Mn2+. Analytical ultracentrifugation analysis indicated that the mutant enzymes were polymerized at 4.5 m urea, and Mn2+ provided protective effect on W548 and WT enzymes only. Other mutants with mutated Trp-548 polymerized at 4.5 m urea in the absence or presence of 4 mm Mn2+. The above results indicate that a single residue, Trp-548, in the subunit interface region, is responsible for the integrity of the quaternary structure of the pigeon cytosolic malic enzyme.

The expression and regulation of alkaline phosphatase (AP) was studied in the human gastric cancer cell line TMK-1. Biochemical analysis, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and Northern blot analysis demonstrated that the cells express placental, germ cell, and intestinal AP isozymes constitutively. Dexamethasone (Dex), a synthetic glucocorticoid, was shown to specifically induce the placental AP activity to about 10-fold and sodium butyrate (NaBu) induced germ cell AP activity to about 4-fold, respectively. In contrast, these two agents showed little effect on the level of intestinal isozymes. Dex and NaBu also differentially induced the mRNA levels of the placental and germ cell APs. Northern blot analysis of the placental AP transcript in the presence of the transcription inhibitor, 5, 6-dichloro-1-beta-D-ribofuranosyl benzimidazole, revealed that the half-life of placental AP mRNA is about 27 h for both the Dex-treated and untreated cells. Nuclear run-on transcription analysis indicated an apparent increase in the rate of placental AP gene transcription in Dex-treated cells. These results indicated that the effect of Dex occurred primarily by activation of the placental AP gene transcription in the cells. In order to study the direct Dex and NaBu effect on AP gene expression, the proximal promoter regions of AP genes were fused to luciferase reporter vectors. Despite the high similarity in nucleotide sequences of these two genes, transient transfection analysis demonstrated that Dex and NaBu exerted a specific stimulation only through the respective placental and germ cell AP gene promoter. Taken together, this study indicates that the expression of PAP and GCAP isozymes have specific regulatory mechanisms that can be differentially controlled by signals including glucocorticoid and NaBu.

The binding mechanism of Mg(2+) at the M3 site of human placental alkaline phosphatase was found to be a slow-binding process with a low binding affinity (K(Mg(app.)) = 3.32 mM). Quenching of the intrinsic fluorescence of the Mg(2+)-free and Mg(2+)-containing enzymes by acrylamide showed almost identical dynamic quenching constant (K(sv) = 4.44 +/- 0.09 M(-1)), indicating that there is no gross conformational difference between the M3-free and the M3-Mg(2+) enzymes. However, Zn(2+) was found to have a high affinity with the M3 site (K(Zn(app.)) = 0.11 mM) and was observed as a time-dependent inhibitor of the enzyme. The dependence of the observed transition rate from higher activity to lower activity (k(obs)) at different zinc concentrations resulted in a hyperbolic curve suggesting that zinc ion induces a slow conformational change of the enzyme, which locks the enzyme in a conformation (M3'-Zn) having an extremely high affinity for the Zn(2+) (K*(Zn(app.)) = 0.33 microM). The conformation of the M3'-Zn enzyme, however, is unfavorable for the catalysis by the enzyme. Both Mg(2+) activation and Zn(2+) inhibition of the enzyme are reversible processes. Structural information indicates that the M3 site, which is octahedrally coordinated to Mg(2+), has been converted to a distorted tetrahedral coordination when zinc ion substitutes for magnesium ion at the M3 site. This conformation of the enzyme has a small dynamic quenching constant for acrylamide (K(sv) = 3.86 +/- 0.04 M(-1)), suggesting a conformational change. Both Mg(2+) and phosphate prevent the enzyme from reaching this inactive structure. GTP plays an important role in reactivating the Zn-inhibited enzyme activity. We propose that, under physiological conditions, magnesium ion may play an important modulatory role in the cell for protecting the enzyme by retaining a favorable geometry of the active site needed for catalysis.

Pigeon liver malic enzyme was inhibited by lutetium ion through a slow-binding process, which resulted in a concave down tracing of the enzyme activity assay. The fast initial rates were independent of lutetium ion concentration, while the slow steady-state rates decreased with increasing Lu(3+) concentration. The observed rate constant for the transition from initial rate to steady-state rate, k(obs), exhibited saturation kinetics as a function of Lu(3+) concentration, suggesting the involvement of an isomerization process between two enzyme forms (R-form and T-form). The binding affinity of Lu(3+) to the R-form is weaker (K(d,Lu) = 14 microM) than that of Mn(2+) (K(m,Mn) = 1.89 microM); however, Lu(3+) has much tighter binding affinity with the T-form ( = 0.83 microM). Lu(3+) was shown to be a competitive inhibitor with respect to Mn(2+), which suggests that Lu(3+) and Mn(2+) are competing for the same metal binding site of the enzyme. These observations are in accordance with the available crystal structure information, which shows a distorted active site region of the Lu(3+)-containing enzyme. Other divalent cations, i.e., Fe(2+), Cu(2+), or Zn(2+), also act as time-dependent slow inhibitors for malic enzyme. The dynamic quenching constants of the intrinsic fluorescence for the metal-free and Lu(3+)-containing enzymes are quite different, indicating the conformational differences between the two enzyme forms. The secondary structure of these two enzyme forms, on the other hand, was not changed. The above results indicated that replacement of the catalytically essential Mn(2+) by other metal ions leads to a slow conformational change of the enzyme and consequently alters the geometry of the active site. The transformed enzyme conformation, however, is unfavorable for catalysis. Both the chemical nature of the metal ion and its correct coordination in the active site are essential for catalysis.

S-Crystallin from octopus lens has a tertiary structure similar to sigma-class glutathione transferase (GST). However, after isolation from the lenses, S-crystallin was found to aggregate more easily than sigma-GST. In vitro experiments showed that the lens S-crystallin can be polymerized and finally denatured at increasing concentration of urea or guanidinium chloride (GdmCl). In the intermediate concentrations of urea or GdmCl, the polymerized form of S-crystallin is aggregated, as manifested by the increase in light scattering and precipitation of the protein. There is a delay time for the initiation of polymerization. Both the delay time and rate of polymerization depend on the protein concentration. The native protein showed a maximum fluorescence emission spectrum at 341nm. The GdmCl-denatured protein exhibited two fluorescence maxima at 310nm and 358nm, respectively, whereas the urea-denatured protein showed a fluorescence peak at 358nm with a small peak at 310nm. The fluorescence intensity was quenched. Monomers, dimers, trimers, and polymers of the native protein were observed by negative-stain electron microscopic analysis. The aggregated form, however, showed irregular structure. The aggregate was solubilized in high concentrations of urea or GdmCl. The redissolved denatured protein showed an identical fluorescence spectrum to the protein solution that was directly denatured with high concentrations of urea or GdmCl. The denatured protein was readily refolded to its native state by diluting with buffer solution. The fluorescence spectrum of the renatured protein solution was similar to that of the native form. The phase diagrams for the S-crystallin in urea and GdmCl were constructed. Both salt concentration and pH value of the solution affect the polymerization rate, suggesting the participation of ionic interactions in the polymerization. Comparison of the molecular models of the S-crystallin and sigma-GST suggests that an extra ion-pair between Asp-101 and Arg-14 in S-crystallin contributes to stabilizing the protomer. Furthermore, the molecular surface of S-crystallin has a protruding Lys-208 on one side and a complementary patch of aspartate residues (Asp-90, Asp-94, Asp-101, Asp-102, Asp-179, and Asp-180) on the other side. We propose a molecular model for the S-crystallin polymer in vivo, which involves side-by-side associations of Lys-208 from one protomer and the aspartate patch from another protomer that allows the formation of a polymeric structure spontaneously into a liquid crystal structure in the lens.

Alanine-scanning site-directed mutagenesis was carried out on all conserved lysine residues of pigeon cytosolic NADP(+)-dependent malic enzyme. Only two mutant enzymes, K162A and K340A, showed significant effect on their kinetic parameters. Both mutant enzymes have K(m) values for Mn(2+) and l-malate similar to those of wild-type. The K(m) value for NADP(+) of K162A is identical to that of wild-type. However, K162A demonstrated a 235-fold decrease in the k(cat) value (0.17 +/- 0.01 vs 40.0 +/- 1.3 s(-1)). These data suggested that the side chain of K162 is important for the enzyme catalytic reaction. We propose that the epsilon-amino group of K162 may serve as a general acid to protonate the 3-carbon of enolpyruvate after decarboxylation. The K340A mutant demonstrated no effect on the k(cat) value. However, its K(m) value for NADP(+) was increased by a factor of 65 (225.7 +/- 5.07 vs 3.49 +/- 0.05 microM). We propose that the NADP(+) specificity is determined by the electrostatic interaction between the epsilon-amino group of K340 and 2'-phosphate of NADP(+).

The effect of retinoic acid and dexamethasone on alkaline phosphatase (AP) expression was investigated in human breast cancer MCF-7 cells. Cellular AP activity was induced significantly by retinoic acid or dexamethasone in a time-dependent and dose-dependent fashion. A marked synergistic induction of AP activity was observed when the cells were incubated with both agents simultaneously. Two AP isozymes, tissue-nonspecific (TNAP) and intestinal (IAP), were shown to be expressed in MCF-7 cells as confirmed by the differential rate of thermal inactivation of these isozymes and RT-PCR. Based on the two-isozyme thermal-inactivation model, the specific activities for TNAP and IAP in each sample were analyzed. TNAP activity was induced only by retinoic acid and IAP activity was induced only by dexamethasone. Whereas dexamethasone conferred no significant effect on TNAP activity, retinoic acid was shown to inhibit IAP activity by approximately 50%. Interestingly, TNAP was found to be the only isozyme activity superinduced when the cells were costimulated with retinoic acid and dexamethasone. Northern blot and RT-PCR analysis were then used to demonstrate that the steady-state TNAP mRNA level was also superinduced, which indicates that the superinduction is regulated at the transcriptional or post-transcriptional levels. In the presence of the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU486, the dexamethasone-mediated induction of IAP activity was blocked completely as expected. However, the ability of RU486 to antagonize the action of glucocorticoid was greatly compromised in dexamethasone-mediated superinduction of TNAP activity. Furthermore, in the presence of retinoic acid, RU486 behaved as an agonist, and conferred superinduction of TNAP gene expression in the same way as dexamethasone. Taken together, these observations suggest that the induction of IAP activity by dexamethasone and the superinduction of TNAP by dexamethasone were mediated through distinct regulatory pathways. In addition, retinoic acid plays an essential role in the superinduction of TNAP gene expression by enabling dexamethasone to exert its agonist activity, which otherwise has no effect.

Partitioning of 4-nitrophenol in a reverse micellar system consisting of aerosol-OT (AOT)–H2O–isooctane was monitored spectrophotometrically. At pH 10.0, the ionized form 4-nitrophenolate in the water pool absorbs visible light with a maximum peak at 402 nm. However, that partitioned into the interface region is not ionized due to interactions with the negatively charged polar head of the surfactant. The partitioning depends on the water content of the system. In some intermediate [H2O]/[AOT] molar ratio values, two absorption peaks were clearly observed, which can be utilized in the partition coefficient estimation. The partitioning also depends on the buffer used. While partitioning of 4-nitrophenol into the interface is observed in carbonate buffer, the partitioning disappeared in 2-amino-2-methylpropanol buffer presumably due to displacement of 4-nitrophenol from the interface region into the water pool. This displacement is not a salt effect but is due to the amino group of 2-amino-2-methylpropanol, because tert-butylamine, rather than isobutanol, induced the replacement. When the surfactant concentration was increased, while keeping the system water content constant, the absorption peak at 402 nm increased with a concomitant decrease in the A310 peak, which demonstrated the affinity of the non-ionized 4-nitrophenol with the surfactant. Multiple apparent pKa values of 4-nitrophenol were observed in the AOT reverse micellar system. We propose a model of the AOT reverse micelles with a gradient micro-polarity in the water pool that results in a continuous influence on the ionization of 4-nitrophenol in the water pool of the system.

The nucleophilic aromatic substitution (SNAr) between GSH and 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene was studied in reverse micellar systems composed of limited amounts of water, a surfactant with a polar head and a nonpolar tail, and the organic solvent 2,2,4-trimethylpentane. When the surfactant was positively charged and contained an aromatic ring in the polar head, the second-order rate constant was increased by approximately two orders of magnitude as compared to that in aqueous solution. The rate enhancement could be attributed to the stabilization of the negatively charged Meisenheimer σ-complex by the positively charged polar head and the weak aromatic ring’s electric quadrupole interactions of the surfactant. The reaction rate in reverse micelles composed of neutral polar head groups (Triton X-100) was increased by 3-fold, which may be explained by the interactions of the hydroxy groups of Triton molecules with the π-system of the Meisenheimer complex. An inverse relationship between the molar concentration [H2O]/[surfactant] ratio, which reflects the inclusive volume of the reverse micellar particle, and the rate enhancement was observed for positively charged or hydroxy-containing reverse micelles, but opposite results were obtained with negatively charged reverse micelles. These reverse micellar systems thus mimic the active site of a detoxification enzyme, glutathione transferase, in which stabilization of the Meisenheimer complex by a positively charged arginine residue, on-edge quadrupole interactions of aromatic amino acids, and the hydroxy group of tyrosine or threonine have been proposed in the enzyme-catalysed SNAr conjugation.

Human placental alkaline phosphatase is a membrane-anchored dimeric protein. Unfolding of the enzyme by guanidinium chloride (GdmCl) caused a decrease of the fluorescence intensity and a large red-shifting of the protein fluorescence maximum wavelength from 332 to 346 nm. The fluorescence changes were completely reversible upon dilution. GdmCl induced a clear biphasic fluorescence spectrum change, suggesting that a three-state unfolding mechanism with an intermediate state was involved in the denaturation process. The half unfolding GdmCl concentrations, [GdmCl]0.5, corresponding to the two phases were 1.45 M and 2.50 M, respectively. NaCl did not cause the same effect as GdmCl, indicating that the GdmCl-induced biphasic denaturation is not a salt effect. The decrease in fluorescence intensity was monophasic, corresponding to the first phase of the denaturation process with [GdmCl]0.5 = 1.37 M and reached a minimum at 1.5 M GdmCl, where the enzyme remained completely active. The enzymatic activity lost started at 2.0 M GdmCl and was monophasic but coincided with the second-phase denaturation with [GdmCl]0.5 = 2.46 M. Inorganic phosphate provides substantial protection of the enzyme against GdmCl inactivation. Determining the molecular weight by sucrose-density gradient ultracentrifugation revealed that the enzyme gradually dissociates in both phases. Complete dissociation occurred at [GdmCl] > 3 M. The dissociated monomers reassociated to dimers after dilution of the GdmCl concentration. Refolding kinetics for the first-phase denaturation is first-order but not second-order. The biphasic phenomenon thereby was a mixed dissociation-denaturation process. A completely folded monomer never existed during the GdmCl denaturation. The biphasic denaturation curve thereby clearly demonstrates an enzymatically fully active intermediate state, which could represent an active-site structure intact and other structure domains partially melted intermediate state. Proteins 33:49–61, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The endogenous argininosuccinate lyase activity of duck delta2-crystallin was specifically inactivated by the histidine-specific reagent, diethyl pyrocarbonate. The protein was protected by l-citrulline or l-arginine from the diethyl pyrocarbonate inactivation. To characterize further the chemical mechanism of the delta2-crystallin-catalysed reaction, deuterium-labelled argininosuccinate was enzymically synthesized from fumarate and l-arginine with delta2-crystallin in 2H2O. The argininosuccinate synthesized contained about 19% of the anhydride form; however, the deuterium was clearly demonstrated to be incorporated enantioselectively. Only the pro-HR atom at C-9 of the succinate moiety was labelled in the [2H]argininosuccinate-9-d synthesized, which indicates an anti-elimination mechanism for the endogenous argininosuccinate lyase activity of delta2-crystallin. The enzymic activity of duck lens delta2-crystallin in the pH range 5.5-8.5 was investigated using both protium- and deuterium-labelled argininosuccinate as the substrate. From the logkcat versus pH plot, two molecular pKa values of 6.18+/-0.02 and 8.75+/-0.03 were detected in the delta2-crystallin-argininosuccinate binary complex. The former must be dehydronated and the latter hydronated to achieve an optimum reaction rate. The logkcat/Km versus pH plot suggested two molecular pKa values of 5.96+/-0.09 and 8.29+/-0.10 for the free delta2-crystallin to be involved in the substrate binding. Small kinetic isotope effects of 1.17+/-0.02 and 1.05+/-0.09 were found for kcat and kcat/Km respectively. Combining results from labelling and kinetic analysis indicates that the endogenous argininosuccinate lyase activity of duck delta2-crystallin is compatible with a stepwise E1cB mechanism, the rate-limiting step probably at the C-N bond-cleavage step.

e-Crystallin is a structural protein in duck lenses with endogenous lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity. When entrapped in an aerosol-OT (AOT)/isooctane/H2O reverse micellar system, e-crystallin preserves this endogenous enzymatic activity. The catalytic constant (kcat) of e-crystallin exhibited multiple peaks at varying degrees of system hydration ([H2O]/[AOT]), thereby suggesting that e-crystallin exists as various oligomers in reverse micelles and that each oligomer is enzymatically active. Substrate inhibition, similar to that found in aqueous solution, is also observed in reverse micelles, albeit with an inhibition constant lower than that in aqueous solution. Graphical analysis by the method of Wang and Srivastava [Anal. Biochem.216, 15 (1994)] at low [H2O]/[AOT], where e-crystallin presumably existed as monomers, suggests that there is only one pyruvate binding site per monomer. A similar analysis of substrate inhibition data at high [H2O]/[AOT], where e-crystallin might exist as tetramers, suggests that monomeric e-crystallin is enzymatically active, in accordance with the multiple peaks in thekcatversus [H2O]/[AOT] plot. e-Crystallin shows different pH dependencies onkcatin different solvent systems. In aqueous solution, only one amino acid residue with a pKavalue of 8.11, which must be protonated, is found to be involved in the catalysis. However, two amino acid residues with pKavalues of 8.26 and 8.44, respectively, are obtained in reverse micelles. The log (kcat/KmPyr) versus pH plots are similar in different solvent systems but the amino acid residue with pKavalue 4.95 in aqueous solution raises its pKavalue to 6.91 in reverse micelles. The pKavalue of the other group is similar in the two solvent systems (8.15 in aqueous and 7.69 in reverse micellar solution). The endogenous LDH activity of e-crystallin is found to be slightly sensitive to AOT concentration, thereby suggesting that e-crystallin has some affinity with the membranous structure.

Ionisation of 4-nitrophenol in a reverse micellar system prepared by dissolving Aerosol OT (AOT), a surfactant with an anionic polar head, in isooctane, depends on the degree of hydration ([H2O]/[AOT]) of the system. The model system provides a convenient instrumental tool with which to study the leaving group effect of alkaline phosphatase-catalysed hydrolysis of 4-nitrophenyl phosphate. The Bronsted constants, βlg, for kcat and kcat/Km were found to be –0.47 and –1.03, respectively. Assuming that phosphorylation of the enzyme is rate limiting, the strong leaving group effect on catalysis indicates that the apparent pKa-values observed in reverse micelles are true measures of ionisation.

The kinetic mechanism of the endogenous glutathione transferase (GST) activity of octopus S-crystallin was investigated by steady-state kinetics. Biphasic double-reciprocal plots were obtained for both glutathione and the hydrophobic substrate 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB). Substrate inhibition was observed only for CDNB with Ksi value of 29.7 +/- 0.01 mM. The catalytic constant for S-crystallin was three orders of magnitude smaller than that for the digestive gland GST of the same species. The initial-velocity studies indicated that the enzyme reaction might conform to a steady-state random Bi-Bi kinetic mechanism, being similar to the reaction of GST from other sources. The pH-rate profiles also suggest that the same chemical mechanism for the nucleophilic aromatic substitution between GSH and CDNB was employed for S-crystallin. The interaction of Tyr7 with the bound GSH lowered the pKa value of the sulfhydryl group of GSH to 6.82-6.85, which is 2.32-2.35 pH unit smaller than that found in aqueous solution. This lowering of pKa value produces the thiolate anion of GSH, a better nucleophile to attack the ipso carbon of CDNB, resulting in formation of Meisenheimer complex intermediate. Removing the chloride ion from this intermediate complex produces the conjugate product. Using the method devised by Wang and Srivastava (Anal. Biochem. 216, 15-26, 1994), the functional unit of the dimeric S-crystallin was estimated to be a monomer. The possible biological implications of the endogenous detoxification ability of cephalopods S-crystallin are discussed.

Octopus glutathione transferase (GST) was enzymically active in aerosol-OT [sodium bis-(2-ethylhexyl)sulphosuccinate]/iso-octane reverse micelles albeit with lowered catalytic constant (kcat). The enzyme reaction rate was found to be dependent on the [H2O]/[surfactant] ratio (ωo) of the system with maximum rate observed at ωo 13.88, which corresponded to vesicles with a core volume of 64 nm3. According to the physical examinations, a vesicle of this size is barely large enough to accommodate a monomeric enzyme subunit. Dissociation of the enzyme in reverse micelles was confirmed by cross-linking of the associated subunits with glutaraldehyde and separation of the monomers and dimers with electrophoresis in the presence of SDS. The kinetic properties of the enzyme were investigated by steady-state kinetic analysis. Both GSH and 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) showed substrate inhibition and the Michaelis constant for CDNB was increased by 36-fold to 11.05 mM in reverse micelles. Results on the initial-velocity and product-inhibition studies indicate that the octopus GST conforms to a steady-state sequential random Bi Bi mechanism. The results from a log kcat versus pH plot suggest that amino acid residues with pKa values of 6.56±0.07 and 8.81±0.17 should be deprotonated to give optimum catalytic function. In contrast, the amino acid residue with a pKa value of 9.69±0.16 in aqueous solution had to be protonated for the reaction to proceed. We propose that the pKa1 (6.56) is that for the enzyme-bound GSH, which has a pKa value lowered by 1.40–1.54 pH units compared with that of free GSH in reverse micelles. The most probable candidate for the observed pKa2 (8.81) is Tyr7 of GST. The pKa of Tyr7 is 0.88 pH unit lower than that in aqueous solution and is about 2 pH units below the normal tyrosine. This tyrosyl residue may act as a base catalyst facilitating the dissociation of enzyme-bound GSH. The possible interaction of GST with plasma membrane in vivo is discussed.

A cDNA coding for human breast cancer cell cytosolic NADP(+)-dependent malic enzyme was obtained. This cDNA is composed of a length of 2084 base pairs, with 1698 base pairs coding for 565 amino acid residues and a length of 386 base pairs representing a 3'-noncoding region. Comparing this nucleotide sequence with that from the normal human tissue [Loeber, G., Dworkin, M. B., Infante, A., and Ahorn, H. (1994), FEBS Lett. 344, 181-186] reveals that three nucleotides in the open reading frame and the length of 3'-noncoding region of the cDNA are different. One of the changes results in a substitution of serine at position 438 for proline, which, however, may not cause significant changes in the predicted secondary structure. A partial cDNA lacking the first 84 nucleotides in the open reading frame was successfully cloned and expressed functionally in Escherichia coli cells. Its Km value for L-malate (1.21 +/- 0.11 mM) is four times higher than that for the natural human breast cancer cell malic enzyme (0.29 +/- 0.04 mM) but similar to that for the full-length recombinant enzyme (1.06 +/- 0.07 mM). The Km values for Mn2+ and NADP+ (0.26 +/- 0.03 and 0.97 +/- 0.4 microM, respectively) are similar to those for the natural enzyme (0.12 +/- 0.02 and 1.9 +/- 0.3 microM, respectively) or the recombinant wild-type enzyme (0.56 +/- 0.04 and 0.44 +/- 0.02 microM, respectively). A recombinant pigeon liver malic enzyme without the first 13 amino acid residues was used for comparison. The Km values for L-malate and Mn2+ of the truncated enzyme (11.2 +/- 0.9 mM and 61.2 +/- 4.6 microM, respectively) are over 40 times larger than those for the natural pigeon liver malic enzyme (0.21 +/- 0.02 mM and 1.06 +/- 0.08 microM, respectively) or the recombinant wild-type enzyme (0.25 +/- 0.01 mM and 1.48 +/- 0.05 microM, respectively). We suggest that the N-terminus of malic enzyme may be required for the substrate binding during the catalytic cycle.

Glutathione transferase (GST) from octopus hepatopancreas was rapidly inactivated by micromolar concentration of Cu(II) in the presence of ascorbate at neutral pH and 0°C. Omitting the metal ion or ascorbate, or replacing the Cu(II) with Fe(II) did not result in any inactivation. Glutathione or the conjugation product of glutathione and 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene offered complete protection of the enzyme from Cu(II)-induced inactivation. 1-Chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, however, did not provide any protection. The inactivation was time and Cu(II) concentration dependent. The dependence of inactivation rate on Cu(II) concentration displayed saturation kinetics, which suggests that the inactivation occurs in two steps with Cu(II) binding with the enzyme first ( K d Cu = 260 μ M), then the locally generated free radicals modify the essential amino acid residues in the active center, which results in enzyme inactivation. The Cu(II)-ascorbate system is, thus, an affinity reagent for the octopus GST. The enzyme inactivation was demonstrated to be followed by protein cleavage. Native octopus GST has a subunit M r of 24,000. The inactivated enzyme was cleaved at the C-terminal domain (domain II) of the enzyme molecule and resulted in the formation of peptide fragment of M r 15,300, which has the identical N-terminal amino acid sequence as the native enzyme. The other half of the peptide with M r approximately 7700 was visible in the gels only after silver staining, which also revealed a minor cleavage site, also located at the domain II, to produce peptide fragments of M r approximately 11,300 and 8300. The oxygen carrier molecule in the cephalopods' blood is the copper-containing hemocyanin, which during turnover will release Cu(II). Our results indicate that Cu(II) catalyzes a site-specific oxidation of the essential amino acid residues at the C-terminus of GST causing enzyme inactivation. The modified-enzyme is then affinity cleaved at the putative metal binding site. The ability of octopus GST to bind with free Cu(II) may have important biological implications to enable cephalopods to avoid copper-induced cellular toxicity.

Pigeon liver malic enzyme was rapidly inactivated by micromolar concentration of Fe2+ in the presence of ascorbate at neutral pH. The inactivated enzyme was subsequently cleaved by the Fe(2+)-ascorbate system at the chemical bond between Asp258 and Ile259 (Wei, C.H., Chou, W.Y., Huang, S.M., Lin, C.C., and Chang, G.G. (1994) Biochemistry, 33, 7931-7936), which was confirmed by site-specific mutagenesis (Wei, C.H., Chou, W.Y., and Chang, G.G. (1995) Biochemistry 34, 7949-7954). In the present study, at neutral pH, Cu2+ was found to be more reactive in the oxidative modification of malic enzyme and the enzyme was cleaved in a similar manner as Fe2+ did. At acidic pH, however, Fe2+ was found to be ineffective in oxidative modification of the enzyme. Nevertheless, Cu2+ still caused enzyme inactivation and cleaved the enzyme at Asp141-Gly142, Asp194-Pro195, or Asp464-Asp465. Mn2+ and L-malate synergistically protect the enzyme from Cu2+ inactivation at acidic pH. Cu2+ is also a competitive inhibitor versus Mn2+ in the malic enzyme-catalyzed reaction with Ki value 70.3 +/- 5.8 microM. The above results indicated that, in addition to the previously determined Asp258 at neutral pH, Asp141, Asp194, and Asp464 are also the coordination sites for the metal binding of malic enzyme. We suggest that the mechanism of affinity modification and cleavage of malic enzyme by the Cu(2+)-ascorbate system proceed in the following sequence. First, Cu2+ binds with the enzyme at the Mn2+ binding site and reduces to Cu+ by ascorbate. Next, the local oxygen molecules are reduced by Cu+, thereby generating superoxide or other reactive free radicals. These radicals interact with the susceptible essential amino acid residues at the metal-binding site, ultimately causing enzyme inactivation. Finally, the modified enzyme is cleaved into several peptide fragments, allowing the identification of metal site of the enzyme. The pH-dependent different specificities of metal-catalyzed oxidation system may be generally applicable for other enzymes or proteins.

The kinetic mechanism of glutathione S-transferase (GST) from Octopus vulgaris hepatopancreas was investigated by steady-state analysis. Initial-velocity studies showed an intersecting pattern, which suggests a sequential kinetic mechanism for the enzyme. Product-inhibition patterns by chloride and the conjugate product were all non-competitive with respect to glutathione or 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB), which indicates that the octopus digestive gland GST conforms to a steady-state sequential random Bi Bi kinetic mechanism. Dead-end inhibition patterns indicate that ethacrynic acid ([2,3-dichloro-4-(2-methyl-enebutyryl) phenoxy]acetic acid) binds at the hydrophobic H-site, norophthalmic acid (gamma-glutamylalanylglycine) binds at the glutathione G-site, and glutathione-ethacrynate conjugate occupied both H- and G-sites of the enzyme. The chemical mechanism of the enzyme was examined by pH and kinetic solvent-isotope effects. At pH (and p2H) = 8.011, in which kcat. was independent of pH or p2H, the solvent isotope effects on V and V/KmGSH were near unity, in the range 1.069-1.175. An inverse isotope effect was observed for V/KmCDNB (0.597), presumably resulting from the hydrogen-bonding of enzyme-bound glutathione, which has pKa of 6.83 +/- 0.04, a value lower by 2.34 pH units than the pKa of glutathione in aqueous solution. This lowering of the pKa value for the sulphydryl group of the bound glutathione was presumably due to interaction with the active site Tyr7, which had a pKa value of 8.46 +/- 0.09 that was raised to 9.63 +/- 0.08 in the presence of glutathione thiolate. Subsequent chemical reaction involves attacking of thiolate anion at the electrophilic substrate with the formation of a negatively charged Meisenheimer complex, which is the rate-limiting step of the reaction.

The cytosolic glutathione S-transferase from an Aedes albopictus cell line, C6/36, was sensitive to tetranitromethane, phenylglyoxal or pyridoxal phosphate modification, but was unaffected by N -acetylimidazole or diethyl pyrocarbonate. The extent of inactivation of the enzyme by those sensitive reagents was dependent on reagent concentrations but was biphasic in nature and did not follow pseudo-first-order kinetics. Glutathione, ethacrynic acid, S -(hexyl)glutathione, or S -(2,4-di-nitrophenyl)glutathione gave substantial protection of the enzyme from inactivation by these reagents. The modified enzyme showed varying Michaelis constants for glutathione ( K mGSH ) or 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene ( K mCDNB ) and a smaller catalytic constant ( k cat . These results indicate the involvement of tyrosine, arginine and lysine residues in the reaction mechanism of the mosquito C6/36 cell glutathione S-transferase. From the results of chemical modification and previous pH studies [Chang G.-G., Tsai L.-N., Tang S.-S., and Wang T.-C. (1994) Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 310, 134–143, we propose that tyrosine residue functions as a general base, promoting ionization of the thiol group of enzyme-bound glutathione and resulting in formation of a more reactive nucleophile thiolate that facilitates conjugation. The essential arginine and lysine residues may participate in maintenance of the correct active center structure.

The active site of pigeon liver malic enzyme was labeled with a fluorescent affinity label, the periodate-oxidized aminopyridine adenine dinucleotide phosphate. The modified enzyme was subjected to proteolytic digestion with trypsin. The resulted peptides were then separated with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography on Waters muBondapak C18 column. Two pure fluorescent peptides were obtained after three runs of the chromatography. The peptides were then subjected to automatic Edman degradation on a Beckman peptide sequencer and subsequently separated and identified with phenylthiohydantoin C18 column. No sequence was obtained. The possible reasons for the failure in sequencing the periodate-oxidized nucleotides labeled active site peptide and some possible pitfalls in using these reagents were discussed.