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In recent times, magnesium oxide (MgO) nanoparticles are proven to be an excellent antibacterial agent which inhibits the growth of bacteria by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS). Release of ROS by nanoparticles will damage the cell membrane of bacteria and leads to the leakage of bacterial internal components and cell death. However, chemically synthesized MgO nanoparticles may possess toxic functional groups which may inhibit healthy human cells along with bacterial cells. Thus, the aim of the present study is to synthesize MgO nanoparticles using leaf extracts of Amaranthus tricolor and photo-irradiation of visible light as a catalyst, without addition of any chemicals. Optimization was performed using Box-Behnken design (BBD) to obtain the optimum condition required to synthesize smallest nanoparticles. The parameters such as time of reaction, the concentration of precursor, and light intensity have been identified to affect the size of biosynthesized nanoparticles and was optimized. The experiment performed with optimized conditions such as 0.001 M concentration of magnesium acetate as precursor, 5 cm distance of light (intensity), and 15 min of reaction time (light exposure) has led to the formation of 74.6 nm sized MgO nanoparticles. The antibacterial activities of MgO nanoparticles formed via photo-irradiation and conventional biosynthesis approach were investigated and compared. The lethal dosage of E. coli for photo-irradiated and conventional biosynthesis MgO nanoparticles was 0.6 ml and 0.4 ml, respectively. Likewise, the lethal dosage of S. aureus for both biosynthesis approaches was found to be 0.4 ml. The results revealed that the antibacterial activity of MgO nanoparticles from both biosynthesis approaches was similar. Thus, photo-irradiated MgO nanoparticles were beneficial over heat-mediated conventional method due to the reduced synthesis duration.

Magnesium oxide (MgO) is a versatile metal oxide with wide applications in electrical, chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Preparation of nano-MgO helps to enhance key physicochemical properties for optimal performance in industrial applications. In the present work, MgO nanoparticles were synthesized by magnesium nitrate precursor in ethanol. Different gelling agents were employed to investigate potential variations in the crystallinity and thermal behavior of the sol–gel product to control the nanoparticle’s size distribution. The crystal and thermal characteristics of the synthesized MgO nanoparticles were studied using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Thermogravimetry-Differential Scanning Calorimetry (TG-DSC) analysis. The XRD data showed that all the samples demonstrated crystallinity except sample B which was amorphous. The TG-DSC characterization showed a three stage thermal decomposition for all the samples, leading to the formation of MgO nanoparticles. Based on the thermal analysis data, different calcination temperatures were selected to investigate their effects on stability, and the sample prepared with tartaric acid as a gelling agent and calcined at 500oC demonstrated the smallest average particle size of 58.7 nm obtained from dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis. Further, this sample was subjected to XRD, FTIR and TEM analysis which reveals that the calcination yielded impure, 30 nm sized spherical shaped, agglomerated MgO nanoparticles. Additionally, the physicochemical characteristics of the selected sample reveals that pure MgO nanoparticles with uniform morphology can be obtained via alteration of calcination time and heating rate.

Biocarriers are pivotal in enhancing the reusability of biocatalyst that would otherwise be less economical for industrial application. Ever since the induction of enzymatic technology, varied materials have been assessed for their biocompatibility with enzymes of distinct functionalities. Herein, cellulase was immobilized onto polymethacrylate particles (ICP) as the biocarrier grafted with ethylenediamine (EDA) and glutaraldehyde (GA). Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) was used as a model substrate for activity assay. Enzyme immobilization loading was determined by quantifying the dry weight differential of ICP (pre-& post-immobilization). Cellulase was successfully demonstrated to be anchored upon ICP and validated by FTIR spectra analysis. The optimal condition for cellulase immobilization was determined to be pH 6 at 20 °C. The maximum CMCase activity was achieved at pH 5 and 50 °C. Residual activity of ∼50% was retained after three iterations and dipped to ∼18% on following cycle. Also, ICP displayed superior pH adaptability as compared to free cellulase. The specific activity of ICP was 65.14 ± 1.11% relative to similar amount of free cellulase.

Viruses are considered as natural nanomaterials as they are in the size range of 20–500 nm with a genetical material either DNA or RNA, which is surrounded by a protein coat capsid. Recently, the field of virus nanotechnology is gaining significant attention from researchers. Attention is given to the utilization of viruses as nanomaterials for medical, biotechnology and energy applications. Removal of genetic material from the viral capsid creates empty capsid for drug incorporation and coating the capsid protein crystals with antibodies, enzymes or aptamers will enhance their targeted drug deliver efficiency. Studies reported that these virus-like nanoparticles have been used in delivering drugs for cancer. It is also used in imaging and sensory applications for various diseases. However, there is reservation among researchers to utilize virus-like nanoparticles in targeted delivery of genes in gene therapy, as there is a possibility of using virus-like nanoparticles for targeted gene delivery. In addition, other biomedical applications that are explored using virus-like nanoparticles and the probable mechanism of delivering genes.

Bioactive glass is a glass composition made up of biological components with bone-like hydroxyapatite layer, which is biocompatible, similar to natural bone tissue. The basic composition of bioglass contains silicon dioxide, sodium oxide, calcium oxide and phosphorus pentoxide, which makes it as a unique biocomposite. The first Bioglass® was invented in 1971, which is referred to as Bioglass® 45S5, for bone regeneration and implant applications. This novel biocomposite material possesses exclusive properties of proximity to the ternary eutectic groups and makes them easily moldable to any shape. Currently, the property and nature of conventional bioglass are modified by altering calcium oxide-to‑phosphorus pentoxide ratio for various biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. It is possible to utilize the biocompatibility of bioactive glass to incorporate metal ions, exclusively as a supplement for therapeutic applications. Further, the biological properties of bioactive glasses can be enhanced by fabricating them as nanosized materials, due to their active surface functional groups and high surface-to-volume ratio. This chapter presents an overview of different types of bioactive glass, especially in the nano-regime, synthesis approaches and their exclusive properties. In addition, accounts on biomedical applications of bioactive glasses and future reflections are also discussed.

Biosurfactant has been identified as a natural biological compound that possesses the capacity to either build up around the fluid phases and generate on the surface of a microbial cell or be produced extracellularly. They possess hydrophilic moiety that contains an amino acid or, as a phosphate group, a carbohydrate, while the hydrophobic moiety contains a fatty acid carbon chain. This unique feature plays a significant role in minimizing surface tension and the interfacial that portends them for numerous environmental activities such as their wide utilization for enhancing oil recovery, management of residual hydrocarbon derived from ship bilge waste, biodegradation of aliphatic hydrocarbons, oil recovery, pumping of crude oil, and in rejuvenation of crude oil contaminant. Therefore, this chapter intends to provide detailed information on the application of novel molecular techniques that could be utilized for characterization of biosurfactant-producing microorganisms for ecorestoration of a heavily polluted environment.

Lycopene is a phytochemical that is present at high concentration in fruits and vegetables such as tomato, guava, watermelon, spinach, carrot, beetroot, and red grapefruit. Lycopene, just like some members of the carotenoids family, has proven to be of high medicinal, scientific, pharmaceutical, and commercial value. These features of lycopene can be attributed to its chemical structure that has been proved to be responsible for its antioxidant properties. The conjugated polyene chains are responsible for its unstable and electrophilic attacks against free radicals because this double π electron system reduces the energy requirement for the oxidation of electrons in each double bond. This reactivity contributes to the efficacy of lycopene as the basis of its antioxidant activity in biological systems and its efficacy as a chemopreventive. This chapter presents this in details while emphasizing more on the therapeutic importance of lycopene.

Metal oxide nanoparticles constitute one of the most conjoint subsets of nanosized particles that are under extensive research, attributing to their outstanding abilities to be useful as a catalyst, and in electronics and biomedical application domains. These nanoparticles are fabricated via physical, chemical, and biological approaches, and their properties depend on the selection of the particular synthesis strategy. However, these manufacturing methods possess certain limitations, which hurdles their benefits in large-scale applications. Consequently, metal oxide nanoparticles are blended with biocompatible polymers, to form nanocomposites for maintaining the stability, without compromising their additional significant properties. Contextually, waterborne polyurethanes are developed and incorporated with a wide variety of metal oxide nanoparticles, to form potential polymer-based nanocomposites with high biocompatibility, as well as mechanical and thermal stability. These novel nanocomposites are currently under investigation to be beneficial as coating materials or formulations in biomedical and environmental applications. This chapter aims to illustrate various types of magnetic and non-magnetic waterborne polyurethane-metal oxide nanocomposites, including their characteristics and specific functionalities. Furthermore, the advantages of utilizing these novel nanocomposites in biomedical and environmental applications are discussed, with an eye on their limitations and future outlook.

The present study investigates the cytotoxicity of hexagonal MgO nanoparticles synthesized via Amaranthus tricolor leaf extract and spherical MgO nanoparticles synthesized via Amaranthus blitum and Andrographis paniculata leaf extracts. In vitro cytotoxicity analysis showed that the hexagonal MgO nanoparticles synthesized from A. tricolor extract demonstrated the least toxicity to both diabetic and non-diabetic cells at 600 μl/ml dosage. The viability of the diabetic cells (3T3-L1) after incubation with varying dosages of MgO nanoparticles was observed to be 55.3%. The viability of normal VERO cells was 86.6% and this stabilized to about 75% even after exposure to MgO nanoparticles dosage of up to 1000 μl/ml. Colorimetric glucose assay revealed that the A. tricolor extract synthesized MgO nanoparticles resulted in ~ 28% insulin resistance reversal. A reduction in the expression of GLUT4 protein at 54 KDa after MgO nanopaSrticles incubation with diabetic cells was observed via western blot analysis to confirm insulin reversal ability. Fluorescence microscopic analysis with propidium iodide and acridine orange dyes showed the release of reactive oxygen species as a possible mechanism of the cytotoxic effect of MgO nanoparticles. It was inferred that the synergistic effect of the phytochemicals and MgO nanoparticles played a significant role in delivering enhanced insulin resistance reversal capability in adipose cells. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (10.1007/s13205-020-02480-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A huge variety of plants are harvested worldwide and their different constituents can be converted into a broad range of bionanomaterials. In parallel, much research effort in materials science and engineering is focused on the formation of nanoparticles and nanostructured materials originating from agricultural residues. Cellulose (40-50%), hemicellulose (20-40%), and lignin (20-30%) represent major plant ingredients and many techniques have been described that separate the main plant components for the synthesis of nanocelluloses, nano-hemicelluloses, and nanolignins with divergent and controllable properties. The minor components, such as essential oils, could also be used to produce non-toxic metal and metal oxide nanoparticles with high bioavailability, biocompatibility, and/or bioactivity. This review describes the chemical structure, the physical and chemical properties of plant cell constituents, different techniques for the synthesis of nanocelluloses, nanohemicelluloses, and nanolignins from various lignocellulose sources and agricultural residues, and the extraction of volatile oils from plants as well as their use in metal and metal oxide nanoparticle production and emulsion preparation. Furthermore, details about the formation of activated carbon nanomaterials by thermal treatment of lignocellulose materials, a few examples of mineral extraction from agriculture waste for nanoparticle fabrication, and the emerging applications of plant-based nanomaterials in different fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, environment protection, environmental remediation, or energy production and storage, are also included. This review also briefly discusses the recent developments and challenges of obtaining nanomaterials from plant residues, and the issues surrounding toxicity and regulation.

The Organosulfur compounds (OSCs) are bioactive compounds or nutraceuticals derived from both plant and animal sources. They contain sulfur atoms that are bound to a cyanate group or a carbon atom in a cyclic or noncyclic configuration. Broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, brussel sprouts, garlic, onion, meat, eggs, and fish are the most common sources of OSC. Allicin, s-allyl cysteine, sulforaphane, cysteine, sulfonylureas, methionine, and lipoic acid are the most common type of OSC that have been isolated from different plant sources. Different resources contain different types of OSC and these compounds may have different health benefits. Various OSC/nutraceuticals are claimed to have strong antioxidant activity. In addition, anti-platelet, immunomodulatory, fibrinolytic, anti-ageing, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-parasitic, anti-hypertensive, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-atherosclerotic and antiviral activities also have been reported in OSC. These activities are beneficial in the treatment of various pathological conditions including neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes. The present chapter discusses the commonly known OSC and their biological activities so that these compounds can be better harnessed for society.

The genus Aloe is an exceptional plant group of Xanthorrhoeaceae family with approximately 500 species. The Aloe species is a novel source of natural antioxidants and bioactive compounds which can be isolated from various parts (leaves, roots and flowers). More than 130 phytoconstituents of different class have been reported from this genus which includes phenolic compounds, flavonoids, phytosterols, glycoproteins, coumarins, alkaloids, pyrones, anthrones, naphthalenes, indoles, anthraquinones (aloe-emodin, aloins, aloectic and barbaloin), alkanes, aldehydes, ketones and dicarboxylic acids with potential toxicological and biological activities. Aloe species are widely used as therapeutic and topical agents due its medicinal and pharmacological properties like anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-viral, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and anti-hyperlipidemic properties. This review article aimed at the phytochemistry, pharmacotherapy and toxicological profile of the Aloe Genus plants.

This chapter presents recent studies on the health benefits of isoflavones from the flowering plants of the Leguminosae family- Fabaceae, which are commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean family. Notable agricultural and food plants in this family are Glycine max (soybean), Phaseolus (beans), Pisum sativum (pea), Medicago sativa (alfalfa), Arachis hypogaea (peanut), Ceratonia siliqua (carob), and Glycyrrhiza glabra (liquorice). It was established from literary sources that extracts from these plants, including the invasive species contains important isoflavones. Prominent among the isoflavones biologically active aglycones: genistein, daidzein, and glycitein. Other isoflavones are ononin and sissotrin, with their aglycones, formononetin and biochanin A respectively. These compounds have been described to be active against some life-threatening diseases such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases among others.

Alopecia or hair loss is a worldwide unisex dermatological problem which affects aesthetic lifestyle qualities in humans. In recent years, drug discovery for hair loss has gained significant pharmaceutical research attention. Synthetic drugs such as minoxidil, oral finasteride, anthralin cream, and ketoconazole-based antifungal shampoos are some of the commercially available product formulations for hair loss treatment. As these products are mostly chemically derived, their long-term exposure to the skin could result in various side effects and skin disorders. As traditional medicine relies on herbs to treat alopecia, in recent times, different species of herbs are being extracted to generate functional bioactive chemicals as active ingredients to treat hair loss. These biologically derived phytochemicals may offer improved long-term biocompatibility with the skin. This chapter presents an overview of various phytochemicals with antialopecia properties and discusses their modes of action. Additionally, the efficiency of flavonoids, which is a major phytochemical constituent of several herbs and a potential 5α-reductase enzyme inhibitor, as a potential drug for alopecia treatment is also discussed.

The utilization of renewable biological resources from living organisms to generate food, energy, and materials is a significant driver of bioeconomies. There is a growing awareness among consumers in the utilization of natural products obtained from microorganisms and plant-based materials to deliver novel functional product technologies that can contribute to industrial bioeconomy. Photosynthetic microorganisms, especially microalgae, are beneficial in yielding highly valuable metabolites, including lipids, proteins, pigments, and carbohydrates. Among these bioactive compounds, natural organic pigments such as chlorophyll, carotenoids, phycobiliproteins, astaxanthin, and xanthophyll are gaining importance in several cosmetic, food, and textile industries. This chapter gives an overview of microalgal pigments production and profiles high-value products that are obtained from microalgal pigments. Discussions on the utilization of microalgal pigments as viable ingredients in various product formulations, recent industrial applications of natural pigments, and the future of microalgal pigment-based economy is also discussed.

Plant based green synthesis approaches are gaining prominence due to their simplicity, cost-effectiveness, ecological friendliness, commercial scalability, efficiency in large scale synthesis, and versatility in harnessing a wide range of value added products. Leaf extract based synthesis of metal oxide nanoparticles facilitates the production of non-toxic nanoparticles due to the presence of various phytochemicals and biochemical compounds that are beneficial for biological and pharmaceutical applications. In the current study, leaf extracts from three different plants: Amaranthus tricolor, Andrographis paniculata and Amaranthus blitum were used for the synthesis of magnesium oxide (MgO) nanoparticles. The biophysical characteristics of the synthesized MgO nanoparticles were investigated using ultraviolet-visible spectra and dynamic light scattering techniques. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) were also used to identify and analyze the functional groups accompanying the extracts and the morphology of the nanoparticles respectively. The absorbance at 320 nm from UV-visible spectroscopy indicates the formation of metal oxide in the sample. Key parameters affecting the synthesis process, including temperature, heating time and precursor concentration, were investigated to probe their effects on the stability and particle size distribution of the nanoparticles. The FTIR results showed that the modifications in the functional groups are responsible for the formation of nanoparticles and the peak between 660 and 540 cm−1 confirms the presence of magnesium oxide. The TEM results showed that all the samples demonstrated stability with a particulate size range of 18–80 nm. The process of smaller MgO nanoparticle formation due to utilization of different precursors and leaf extracts was also explained. Overall, the green synthesis approach demonstrated potential for developing highly stable MgO nanoparticles with tight particle size distribution from different plant materials for applications in biosensing and therapeutic development.

This chapter discusses the bioactive peptides as they are the determining factor that elevates their bioactivity. The short chains of amino acid monomers are grouped together with peptide bond linkages to form a beneficial biological entity called peptide. The chemical-based fabrication approach is the conventional approach to produce synthetic peptides that have been developed with the help of efficient coupling reagents. The activation of the carboxylic acid by chemical reagents in the amino acid generates active acyl group that forms strong peptide bonds, followed by nucleophilic α-amino group attack. The endoproteases enzymes possess the ability to catalyze and cleave terminal or penultimate peptide bond. The major drawback of the technology is that the peptides expressed are naturally toxic to the host and nascent peptides are more prone to proteolytic damage inside the host system. The recombinant peptides are expressed as fusion peptides to alleviate their toxicity and degradation.

Proteins are bio-macromolecules of long amino acid chains with several significant applications in living cells. It is the building block of tissues, enzymes, hormones, bones, muscles, cartilage, blood, skin and biological fluids. Proteins in biological fluids exist in combination with cells, DNA, RNA and other proteins. This requires effective separation and purification mechanisms to detect, isolate and characterize specific proteins from biological fluids. Numerous conventional methods are available for separation, purification and detection of proteins. However, these methods are challenged with several drawbacks including low separation efficiency, low purity levels, use of complex separation and purification processes, requirement of stringent purification steps, and lower detection sensitivity in complex biofluids. Application of nanoparticles presents a strategy to address the challenges associated with protein separation, purification and detection. This is due to the unique properties of nanoparticles including enhanced surface area to volume ratio, presence of atoms at the edges of surface, enhanced bioactivity and sensitivity. This chapter presents an overview of different types of nanoparticles used for protein separation, purification and detection applications. In addition, accounts on industrial applications of nanoparticles for protein bioseparation and future reflections are discussed.

Bioresource-based green synthesis of nanoparticles has gained significant interest as an emerging technology to reduce the toxicity of nanoparticles commonly associated with conventional chemical synthesis approaches. Studies on green synthesis of metal nanoparticles have been carried out with various biological materials including from bacteria, fungi, and plant extracts. Plant extracts in particular have been extensively used for the synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, and this is due to the presence of essential phytochemicals in plant extracts especially from the leaves. Leaf extract contains various types of phytochemicals such as terpenoids, flavonoids, ketones, aldehydes, amides, and carboxylic acids, which play a major role in formulating and enhancing the bioactivity of the nanoparticles. This article discusses flavonoids as an essential phytochemical for the formation of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles and enhancement of their bio-functionality and compatibility. In addition, bioprocess developments for the synthesis of metal as well as metal oxide nanoparticles from various biological materials are discussed.

Magnesium Oxide (MgO) nanoparticles are known to play a significant role in lowering the production of lipids and serum glucose for diabetes treatment. Additionally, the emergence of aptamers has created new opportunities in the realization of smart drug delivery systems, mainly attributing to their abilities to be altered at the molecular level, and subsequently be conjugated onto biopolymers harbouring specific drugs, in order to navigate specific cellular sites. The current work reports the synthesis of a multifunctional aptamer-navigated particulate delivery system (DPAP), harbouring MgO (synthesized via chemical - MgO1 and green – MgO2 approaches) nanoparticles, to target 3T3-L1 diabetic cells. In vitro performance indicators, including encapsulation efficiency, targeting capability, cellular transfection efficiency, and insulin reversal capacity, were investigated. While the DLS analysis indicated hydrodynamic sizes of 766.6 nm and 641.3 nm for the DPAP-MgO1 and DPAP-MgO2 formulations, respectively; and zeta potentials of +5.28 mV and −0.025 mV, for the same formulations, respectively. Additionally, DPAP-MgO2 offered better encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity of 93.69% and 0.03 mg MgO/mg PLGA, respectively. 3,5-Dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) assessment showed that both DPAP-MgO1 and DPAP-MgO2 particulate systems enhanced the in vitro cellular uptake, as well as the insulin resistance reversal ability of the 3T3-L1 cells. The outcomes from the current work demonstrate the potential of DPAP particulate system as an effective and promising carrier, for the delivery of MgO nanoparticles in diabetes treatment.