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The efficacy of additional water-soluble additives was studied relative to the physical and mechanical properties of particleboards produced from oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB). Polyethylene glycol, acrylamide, and acrylic resin were selected as water-soluble additives for use in the OPEFB particleboard production process. The effects of the three additives at two different concentrations (2% and 4% of dry OPEFB mass) on the particleboard properties were evaluated. Addition of water-soluble additives increased the performance of the OPEFB particleboard. The additive concentration has a significant effect on the properties of the particleboard. With the increase of additive concentration, the internal bonding and modulus of rupture value increased while the thickness swelling and water absorption decreased. Particleboards with an additional 4% of acrylamide or polyethylene glycol achieved the highest modulus of rupture (22 MPa), highest internal bonding strength (1 N/mm2), and lowest thickness swelling (9%). All the particleboards produced with 4% of water-soluble additive achieved the standard requirements of JIS A 5908:2003 for physical and mechanical properties.

The aim of this study was to select the optimal conditions for the carbonization process followed by surface modification treatment with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to obtain a highly microporous activated carbon structure derived from palm kernel shells (PKS) and coconut shells (CS). The effects of the carbonization temperature and NaOH concentration on the physiochemical properties, adsorption capability, specific surface area, surface morphology, and surface chemistry of PKS and CS were evaluated in this study. The results show that surface-modified activated carbons presented higher surface area values (CS: 356.87 m2 g−1, PKS: 427.64 m2 g−1), smaller pore size (CS: 2.24 nm, PKS: 1.99 nm), and larger pore volume (CS: 0.34 cm3 g−1, PKS: 0.30 cm3 g−1) than the untreated activated carbon, demonstrating that the NaOH surface modification was efficient enough to improve the surface characteristics of the activated carbon. Moreover, surface modification via 25% NaOH greatly increases the active functional group of activated carbon, thereby directly increasing the adsorption capability of activated carbon (CS: 527.44 mg g−1, PKS: 627.03 mg g−1). By applying the NaOH post-treatment as the ultimate surface modification technique to the activated carbon derived from PKS and CS, a highly microporous structure was produced.

Time and storage space are the main constraints facing by the current Malaysia composting industries which are handling lignocellulosic food industry waste such as empty fruit bunch (EFB), coffee ground (CG) and palm oil mill sludge (POMS). To develop an efficient accelerated composting method for lignocellulosic food industry waste in Malaysia, a new approach which combined two distinct technologies to achieve rapid composting; (i) co-composting with combination of different lignocellulosic materials and (ii) inoculation of the co-composting with mixture of microorganism were presented in this study. All the mixtures achieved thermophilic condition on the first week of composting, with 50% EFB + 50% CG combination recorded the highest temperature of 56 °C. The mixtures with initial C/N ratios within 25–35 showed the highest reduction in holocellulose, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin content while compost mixture with initial C/N ratio more than 50 had a minimal reduction. The C/N ratio for 50% EFB + 25% CG + 25% POMS combination was reduced to less than 20 after 4 weeks of co-composting process while the other treatments needed longer composting duration. During thermophilic phase, higher population of bacteria (107–108 CFU/g DW) was observed, followed by fungi (105–106 CFU/g DW) and actinomycetes (105–106 CFU/g DW) populations. However, higher population of actinobacteria (104–106 CFU/g DW) compared to bacterial (104–105 CFU/g DW) and fungal (103–104 CFU/g DW) was found during latter stages. By reducing both the time and space required for composting lignocellulosic food industry waste, this accelerated co-composting method may be a viable option for food industries searching for a long-term, practical solution for solid biowaste disposal issues.

Ash related operational problem is one of the most prominent issues in using lignocellulosic biomass as solid biofuel. This study evaluates the effect of kaolin and calcite addition as fuel additives on the ash melting characteristic and heating value of the oil palm biomass (empty fruit bunch and oil palm trunk). Both additives significantly improved the ash melting characteristic of the oil palm biomass. While the concentrations of additives act as a variable to increase the sintering temperature, it also had strong impacts on higher heating value reduction and ash content increment. Kaolin reduced the sintering degree of the ashes with the formation of inorganic elements mixtures mostly detained in the ash sediments. In compare, the presence of calcite helped to increase the ash melting temperature but at the same time induce higher concentration of fly ash in the flue gas. Overall, kaolin is more efficient than calcite to decrease the sintering degree of the ashes from molten to loose with the measure of 0.5 g/g ash while calcite require higher dose (at the dose higher than 0.7 g/g ash) when combusted at 1000 °C.

Empty fruit bunches (EFB), coffee grounds (CG), and palm oil mill sludge (POMS) were composted in the laboratory for 60 days in order to study the composting process of lignocellulosic food industry wastes. In the first part of the experiment, EFB, CG, and POMS were composted alone (composting of single lignocellulosic material), and in the second part, EFB was composted with CG (1EFB:1CG ratio) and POMS (1EFB:1POMS ratio). The effects of different turning frequencies on the physical and chemical properties of composting were observed and its relation with the degradation process was highlighted. Results showed that oil and grease were first degraded, followed by recalcitrant compounds like alpha-cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose were degraded mainly during the 60 days of composting, and the progressive reduction of the cellulose/lignin ratio proved that the main evolution of these wastes took place. It was observed that 3, 6, and 9 days of turning frequency did not...

Lignocellulosic nanomaterials are nanoscale materials derived from lignocellulosic biomass and having the length ranges from 1 to 100 nm. Generally, lignocellulosic biomass consisting of three main cell wall components, namely, cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Building material represents a variety of materials that are used for construction purpose including wood and timber, fired bricks and clay blocks, steel, concrete, cement composites, etc. Construction and building materials can be simply classified as structural and nonstructural materials. Concrete, wood, and steel are three of the main structural materials. Lignocellulosic nanomaterials are able to enhance the properties of construction and building materials by acting as a reinforcement to the concrete, coating for woods, and nanofiller for polymer composites. This chapter provides an overview on the available types of lignocellulosic nanomaterials and their application in the production of construction and building materials. Limitations and challenges dealing with the application of lignocellulosic nanomaterials were also discussed.

Non-renewable nature of commercial coal-based activated carbon has pushed researchers to look for sustainable alternatives which are inexpensive and abundantly available such as palm kernel shell (PKS) and coconut shell (CS). In this study, preparation of the lignocellulosic biomass using acid (H 3 PO4), alkali (NaOH) and water pretreatment have been investigated. Pretreatment temperature and time were determined as the significant factors on the chemical–structural characteristics of CS and PKS. In addition, BET, SEM, FTIR, TGA were used to elucidate the development of PKS and CS and its capacity towards the adsorption of methylene blue and iodine. By varying the pretreatment conditions and process, it offers the possibility of modifying and controlling the porous texture of the biomass to prepare it as potential precursor for further physical thermal process during activated carbon production. The pretreated biomass results showed that the adsorption of methylene blue (14.35–16.92​ mg/g) and iodine value (20.14–23.86 mg/g) were significantly higher than non-treated biomass (methylene blue adsorption: 1.71–1.79 mg/g, iodine adsorption: 0.77–1.28 mg/g). Moreover, the results also revealed that pretreatment temperature and time have significantly affected the adsorbent properties of biomass. The pretreatment of biomass with H 3 PO4 created a better development of porous structure. The highest surface area for CS (89.09 m2/g) and PKS (70.01 m2/g) were attained by using H 3 PO4 at 80 °C for 2 h. The impregnation pretreatment simultaneously unclog existing pores from ash minerals while create new cracks and pores.

The effect of carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratios towards facultative co-digestion of palm oil mill effluent (POME) and empty fruit bunches (EFB) in terms of methane production and biodegradability of the substrates was experimentally evaluated. The experiment was performed with different EFB and POME loadings which are adjusted to specific C/N ratios. Based on the methane production, gross electricity production from the co-digestion was also calculated and presented. The results showed that cumulative methane production increased from 0.17 L CH 4 (without EFB admixture) to 2.03 L CH 4 in response for the treatment with C/N ratio of 45. After the digestion process, BOD and hemicellulose shows the highest biodegradability rate in POME and EFB, respectively. The maximum estimated gross electricity production of 196 kWh was observed with C/N ratio of 45 (10 L of POME, 3.1 kg of EFB). Conclusively, co-digestion of POME with EFB generates higher methane production, and this relates with the higher degradation of organic substrates.

The usage of high ash content biomass for heat and electricity generation may lead to various ash-related problems, primarily to heating value, ash and combustion characteristics. The study aims at studying the effectiveness of leaching on removing ash forming elements and increasing ash melting temperature using water and acetic acid as the extraction agent. Leaching by acetic acid solutions removed most of the ash forming elements, with ash melting characteristics under high temperature were considerably improved. If the ash removal efficiency and HHV were to be taken as consideration for the selection of leaching treatment, acetic acid leaching method will be the most preferable treatment. Using the method established in this research, the lignocellulosic biomass presented in this study can be prepared for combustion with the assurance that ash forming elements have been reduced sufficiently to safeguard against ash production, corrosion and slagging in biomass boiler.

Termites thrive in great abundance in terrestrial ecosystems and the symbiotic gut microbiota play important roles in digestion of lignocelluloses and nitrogen metabolism. Termites are excellent models of biocatalysts as they inhabit dense microbes in their guts that produce digestive enzymes to decompose lignocelluloses and convert it to end products such as sugars, hydrogen, and acetate. Different of digestive system between lower and higher termites which lower termites dependent on their dual decomposing system, consisting of termite's own cellulases and gut's protists. Higher termites decompose cellulose using their own enzymes, because of the absence of symbiotic protists. Termite gut prokaryotes efficiently support lignocelluloses degradation. In this review, a brief overview of recent experimental works, development and commercialization is discussed. Significant progress has been made to isolate cellulolytic strains from termites and optimise the digestion efficiency of cellulose. Future perspective should emphasize the isolation of cellulolytic strains from termites, genetically modifying or immobilization of the microbes which produce the desired enzyme and thus benefits on the microbiology and biotechnology.

Malaysia is the biggest producer of palm oil in the world. The production generates large amounts of waste trunks which should be considered a valuable bio-feedstock rather than waste. An approach for valorization of waste oil palm biomass – especially that of low density hardly applicable in industry – through furfurylation was investigated. Furfuryl alcohol treatment resulted in great improvement in the properties of the material: 200% density gain, water absorption and thickness swelling reduced by 50% and 74%, respectively, hardness increased by 400%, as well as 3.5-fold and 7.4-fold increase, respectively, in bending strength and modulus of elasticity was observed. Alternations in physical and mechanical properties of oil palm trunk combined with aesthetic changes due to material darkening may be considered an effective approach for conversion of waste biomass to novel materials of enhanced technical value.

In the present study, agricultural biomass—palm kernel shell (PKS) and coconut shell (CS)—was used to produce high porosity bioadsorbent using two-stage continuous physical activation method with different gas carrier (air and N 2 ) in each stage. The activation temperature was set constant at 600, 700, 800 or 900°C for both activation stages with the heating rate of 3°C min −1 . Two parameters, the gas carrier and activation temperature, were determined as the significant factors on the adsorption properties of bioadsorbent. BET, SEM, FTIR, TGA, CHNS/O and ash content were used to elucidate the developed bioadsorbent prepared from PKS and CS and its capacity towards the adsorption of methylene blue and iodine. The novel process of two-stage continuous physical activation method was able to expose mesopores and micropores that were previously covered/clogged in nature, and simultaneously create new pores. The synthesized bioadsorbents showed that the surface area (PKS: 456.47 m 2 g −1 , CS: 479.17 m 2 g −1 ), pore size (PKS: 0.63 nm, CS: 0.62 nm) and pore volume (PKS: 0.13 cm 3 g −1 , CS: 0.15 cm 3 g −1 ) were significantly higher than that of non-treated bioadsorbent. The surface morphology of the raw materials and synthesized bioadsorbent were accessed by SEM. Furthermore, the novel process meets the recent industrial adsorbent requirements such as low activation temperature, high fixed carbon content, high yield, high adsorption properties and high surface area, which are the key factors for large-scale production of bioadsorbent and its usage.

Huge amount of oil palm trunks were made available during replanting activities to replace the unproductive oil palm trees. In this study, 30-years old oil palm trunks were used. The oil palm trunk (OPT) were treated respectively with different solid content (10%, 20% and 30%) of aqueous urea formaldehyde (UF) under three level of impregnation pressure 8 MPa, 10 MPa and 12 MPa for 15 min, 30 min and 60 min. Three-layered board was produced by laminating impregnated OPT with 0.5 mm thick veneer at 180 g/m 2 glue spread rate and hot pressed using 6 MPa pressing pressure at temperature of 110 °C for 4 min. It was observed that increase of impregnation pressure and time did not improve the physical and mechanical properties of the three-layered board. The results from soaking test showed that the three-layered board produced from OPT impregnated with higher resin solid content and shorter impregnation time eventually reduced the degree of water absorption and resulted in dimensional changes of its thickness and width. Furthermore, the impregnation treatments on the core layer increased the modulus of rupture (MOR) and shear strength of the board but a reduction in modulus of elasticity (MOE). The optimum UF impregnation treatment which produced the highest mechanical and physical properties was the treatment with 30% UF solid content, 10 MPa impregnation pressure and 15 min impregnation time.

Large area of oil palm plantation in Malaysia generated significant amount of oil palm biomass such as oil palm trunk. This material is assumed to possess multipurpose utilization, including a starch-producing raw material. This work is aimed to determine the total extractable starch from oil palm trunk (OPT) using commercial steeping methods. The extraction methods used in this study include steeping the OPT in sodium metabisulphite (Na 2 S 2 O 5 ) alone and with the addition of lactic acid (C 3 H 6 O 3 ). The effect of process parameters: incubation temperature (IT) (room temperature at 26 °C, 40 °C, 50 °C), incubation period (IP) (24 h, 36 h, 48 h) and substrate mesh size (MS) (20 mesh, 40 mesh, 60 mesh) were evaluated for their effect on starch yield. The experimental results indicated that with the addition of lactic acid during steeping improved the starch yield (3.61%) as compared to that of steeping using sodium metabisulphite alone (0.92%). The effect of substrate mesh size is more significant than process parameters: incubation temperature and incubation period on the starch yield. The contour plot was derived from the equation and applied to determine the interactive effects of IT × IP, IT × MS and IP × MS. Among the interactions, IT × MS is more significant than IT × IP, and IP × MS on the starch yield. A second-order regression equation was developed for the response as a function of independent coded parameters ( R 2 = 0.91). Conclusively, starch recovery increased with increase of OPT mesh size and steeping incubation temperature.

Large quantities of oil palm trunks are available annually during the replanting activities when the oil palm tree passed their economic age, on an average after 25 years are replace with young trees. Basically the oil palm trunks contains about 18- 21% of lignin, 65-80% of holocellulose (a-cellulose and hemicellulose) and quite significant amount starch. This work is aimed to determine the total extractable starch and sugars content from oil palm trunks by using steeping method and dilute acid hydrolysis. The effect of different oil palm trunk powder size on starch, xylose and glucose yield was evaluated. The effect of extraction parameter for each extraction method on the yield of starch and sugars were studied. The highest starch yield was obtained when steeped in the presence of lactic acid, while the highest xylose yield was obtained by 60 min hydrolysis of 60 mesh of oil palm powder with 2% sulfuric acid. For glucose yield, hydrolysis efficiency of 82% was obtained for conversion of oil palm trunk to glucose using two-stage concentrated sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Conclusively oil palm trunk can be considered as a resource of substantial amounts of starch and sugars.