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Moral decisions often involve dilemmas: cases of conflict between competing obligations. In two studies (N = 204), we ask whether children appreciate that reasoning through dilemmas involves acknowledging that there is no single, simple solution. In Study 1, 5‐ to 8‐year‐old US children were randomly assigned to a Moral Dilemma condition, in which story characters face dilemmas between two prosocial actions, or a Personal Cost control, in which story characters face decisions between a matched prosocial action and a self‐interested action. Children were then presented with two reasoners who made the same judgment, but one confidently endorsed one moral action, and the other hesitantly acknowledged both actions. As they aged, children became more likely to prefer the uncertain reasoner's "way of thinking" in the Moral Dilemma compared to the Personal Cost condition. They also inferred that the uncertain reasoner was nicer and more trustworthy than the confident one. In Study 2, when both reasoners acknowledged the dilemma and differed only in their level of uncertainty, 5‐year‐olds preferred the acknowledgment to be accompanied by a confident decision, 6‐ and 7‐year‐olds preferred it be accompanied by uncertainty, and 8‐year‐olds showed no preference. These results show that, before the age at which children can resolve dilemmas successfully on their own, they recognize and value others who approach dilemmas with appropriate humility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Taking Premilla Nadasen's article as a jumping off point, this essay pushes social reproduction theory (SRT) to think about labor performed by children. Children often engage in the labor of social reproduction: cooking, cleaning, nurturing families and animals, and watching other children. Focusing on enslaved Black children sheds light on some of the most marginalized and invisible labor, while also considering a group of people (children) who also need to be cared for. This essay argues for thinking about the subjective experience of laboring for these children and how they help illuminate the intertwined history of racial capitalism and social reproduction. Labor relations are also social relations, and scholars of social reproduction should pay attention to a wide range of human relations. The boundary struggles that laborers engage in are not only class struggle, but also wider struggles over the meanings of humanity and life. In this essay the author focuses on relations between Black children and their enslavers, Black sociality and kinship relations, and intersubjective experiences of care, revealing boundary struggles over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper conducts a scoping review to identify studies which use the framework of intersectionality to understand the overrepresentation of Black women, children, and families within the child welfare system. A comprehensive review of electronic databases was conducted as of June 2021. Of the 4,663 records identified, ten peer-reviewed journal articles met criteria for inclusion within the study across the disciplines of social work, law, public health, and criminal justice. Additional empirical, peer-reviewed journal articles are needed to understand the overrepresentation of Black women, children, and families within the child welfare system using the framework of intersectionality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined how attending a predominantly Black school, school quality, and school economic disadvantage influences Black children's academic engagement and motivation during late elementary school. Academic engagement and motivation were assessed in a sample of 182 Black boys and girls at ages 10 and 11. Longitudinal changes in children's academic engagement and motivation were estimated using a latent change score model. Findings indicated declines in emotional engagement for children attending predominantly Black schools, but only for those children attending lower quality schools. The current study highlights the important role of school racial composition, economic disadvantage, and school quality in shaping Black children's academic outcomes. Implications for future research on Black children's academic outcomes are discussed. Highlights: Academic engagement and motivation was assessed in a sample of Black children prior to their transition to middle school. Declines in emotional engagement were identified for Black children attending lower quality, predominantly Black schools. School racial composition and economic disadvantage predicted declines in students' academic motivation self concept. This study emphasizes the important role of school level characteristics that shape Black children's academic outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) are efficacious in the treatment of asthma, which affects more than 300 million people in the world. While genome-wide association studies have identified genes involved in differential treatment responses to ICS in asthma, few studies have evaluated the effects of combined rare and common variants on ICS response among children with asthma. Among children with asthma treated with ICS with whole exome sequencing (WES) data in the PrecisionLink Biobank (91 White and 20 Black children), we examined the effect and contribution of rare and common variants with hospitalizations or emergency department visits. For 12 regions previously associated with asthma and ICS response (DPP10, FBXL7, NDFIP1, TBXT, GLCCI1, HDAC9, TBXAS1, STAT6, GSDMB/ORMDL3, CRHR1, GNGT2, FCER2), we used the combined sum test for the sequence kernel association test (SKAT) adjusting for age, sex, and BMI and stratified by race. Validation was conducted in the Biorepository and Integrative Genomics (BIG) Initiative (83 White and 134 Black children). Using a Bonferroni threshold for the 12 regions tested (i.e., 0.05/12 = 0.004), GSDMB/ORMDL3 was significantly associated with ICS response for the combined effect of rare and common variants (p-value = 0.003) among White children in the PrecisionLink Biobank and replicated in the BIG Initiative (p-value = 0.02). Using WES data, the combined effect of rare and common variants for GSDMB/ORMDL3 was associated with ICS response among asthmatic children in the PrecisionLink Biobank and replicated in the BIG Initiative. This proof-of-concept study demonstrates the power of biobanks of pediatric real-life populations in asthma genomic investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Family instability has negative consequences, on average, for child and adolescent behavior, cognitive scores, and educational attainment. Beyond changes involving parents, many children experience household changes involving extended family and nonrelatives. These children are less likely to graduate from high school and complete some college than those who experience no such changes. Research finds small or insignificant negative consequences of these changes among Black children. I estimate heterogeneous effects of household changes involving parents, extended family, and nonrelatives on educational attainment among Black children based on the likelihood of such changes. Black children least likely to experience changes experience stronger negative effects on educational attainment than those moderately and most likely to do so. Black children who are least and moderately likely may be more negatively affected in terms of some college completion relative to Black children who are most likely to experience this type of household change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asthma self-management education (AS-ME) is an effective strategy to help children with asthma achieve better asthma control and outcome. The objective of this study is to assess the association between the prevalence of receiving AS-ME curriculum components and sociodemographic characteristics among children with current asthma. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, child Asthma Call-back Survey 2015–2017 aggregated data were used. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to assess associations of each AS-ME component question and sociodemographic characteristic, adjusting for sample weighting. Among 3,213 children with current asthma, 52% of children reported ever being given an asthma action plan by a doctor or other healthcare professional. After adjusting for other variables, boys and Non-Hispanic Black children were more likely to report being given an action plan (APR= 1.15[95% CI 1.00–1.32] and APR= 1.28[95% CI 1.07–1.54] respectively). Non-Hispanic Black (APR = 2.15 [95% CI 1.30–3.55]), non-Hispanic, other race (APR = 1.95 [95% CI1.04–3.66]), and Hispanic children (APR = 1.84 [95% CI 1.18–2.89]) were more likely to report taking a course to learn how to manage asthma than non-Hispanic White children. Hispanic children (40.8%) were more likely to report being advised to change home environment compared to non-Hispanic Whites (31.5%) (APR =1.28 [95% CI 1.01–1.63). The prevalence of some elements of asthma-self management education was relatively low and there were differences observed in the prevalence of receiving AS-ME by race/ethnicity, parental education, and income. Targeted implementation of asthma self-management components and interventions may improve asthma control and reduce asthma morbidity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We intend to discuss child sexual violence and understand how racism and sexism are linked in its perpetration. Analyzing such violence in interface with both concepts allows us to reflect on the intersectional aspects of this issue and its participation in the subjective constructions of those who perpetrate it and those who experience it. We use the resource of "livewriting" - the experience of those who write as a starting point and a gateway to sharing similar experiences, too. Research was carried out on academic sites seeking to map and understand how the topic has been worked on. We used the following descriptors: child sexual violence, black girls, racism, and sexism in their possible combinations. The Child and Adolescent Statute and Violence Atlas data, and the Epidemiological Bulletin of Sexual Violence against Children and Adolescents in Brazil were analyzed. The analyses were carried out cross-sectionally, considering the objective proposed here. Beforehand and explicitly, it was not possible to find analyses that consider the entanglement between racism and sexism in the perpetration of crimes of sexual violence against children. We questioned, how are issues of race/color considered by academic productions. In psychology, what interpretation do we have of ethnic-racial relations? What do the results reflect about psychology and even science? We hope that the data collected here and the reflections proposed can shed light on a phenomenon whose exponential growth is painfully alarming, as well as promote theoretical and practical insights to address the issues that are urgent and necessary to be addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Seldom has work investigated systematic biases in adults’ truth and lie judgments of children’s reports. Research demonstrates that adults tend to exhibit a bias toward believing a child is telling the truth, but it is unknown whether this truth bias applies equally to all children. Given the pervasiveness of racial prejudice and anti-Black racism in the United States, the current study examined whether adults are more or less likely to believe a child is telling the truth based on the race of the child (Black or White), the race of the adult perceiver (Black or White), and the perceiver’s concerns regarding appearing unprejudiced. Methods: Using an online data-collection platform, 593 Black and White American adults reviewed fictitious vignettes in which a child denied committing a misbehavior at school (e.g., damaging a laptop). The race of the child in the vignette was manipulated using an AI-generated photo of either a Black child or a White child. After reading each story, participants provided a categorical veracity judgment by indicating whether they believed the child in the story was lying (and therefore committed the misdeed) or telling the truth (and was innocent), as well as rated how honest or deceptive the child was being on a continuous scale. Participants also completed questionnaires assessing their internal (personal) and external (normative) motivations to respond in non-prejudiced ways. Results and discussion: Results indicated that systematic racial biases occur in adults’ veracity judgments of children’s statements. Both Black and White participants exhibited a truth bias in their veracity judgments of Black children, but not when evaluating the deceptiveness of White children. Consistent with the prejudice-related concerns hypothesis, the observed truth bias toward Black children was moderated by individual differences in participants’ desire to respond without prejudice and whether those motivations stem from external or internal sources. The current findings present novel evidence regarding racial bias and prejudice-related concerns as potential barriers to making veracity judgments of children’s statements and, ultimately, successful lie detection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study examined the extent, demographics and risks for child pedestrian, burns and drowning mortality in Johannesburg. Information on the demographics, scene and temporal circumstances for childhood injury deaths from 2000 to 2010 was gleaned from the National Injury Mortality Surveillance System. Descriptive statistical methods were used. The study recorded 756 pedestrian (8.7/100,000), 439 drowning (5.1/100,000), and 399 burn injury deaths (4.6/100,000) among children aged 0–14 years. Male children were the main victims, with male-to-female ratios of 2.3 for drowning, 1.7 for pedestrian and 1.2 for burn mortality. The pattern of child mortality differed across age groups with older children recording higher rates for pedestrian deaths and younger children higher rates for the non-traffic deaths. Pedestrian and burn mortality especially affected black children, while drowning affected both black and white children. The time, day and month of greatest injury mortality varied by injury cause, with e.g. pedestrian mortality common in afternoons and evenings, weekends, and dispersed across the year although increasing towards year end. The study highlighted the salience of differentiating risks for childhood injuries by discrete external cause for purposes of informing prevention responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Children of minority race/ethnicity face barriers to accessing specialty services. During the COVID pandemic, health insurance companies reimbursed telehealth services. Our objective was to evaluate the effect of audio versus video visits on children's access to outpatient neurology services, particularly for Black children. Methods: Using Electronic Health Record data, we collected information about children who had outpatient neurology appointments in a tertiary care children's hospital in North Carolina from March 10, 2020, to March 9, 2021. We used multivariable models to compare appointment outcomes (canceled vs completed, and missed vs completed) by visit type. We then conducted similar evaluation for the subgroup of Black children. Results: A total of 1250 children accounted for 3829 scheduled appointments. Audio users were more likely to be Black and Hispanic, and to have public health insurance than video users. Adjusted odds ratio (aOR) for appointments completed versus canceled was 10 for audio and 6 for video, compared to in-person appointments. Audio visits were twice as likely as in-person visits to be completed versus missed; video visits were not different. For the subgroup of Black children, aOR for appointments completed versus canceled for audio was 9 and video was 5, compared to in-person appointments. For Black children, audio visits were 3 times as likely as in-person visits to be completed versus missed; video visits were not different. Conclusions: Audio visits improved access to pediatric neurology services, especially for Black children. Reversal of policies to reimburse audio visits could deepen the socioeconomic divide for children's access to neurology services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the lack of sufficient data on the relationship between racial disparities and the occurrence of infectious respiratory diseases in children, the aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis is to evaluate the presence of racial gaps in the occurrence of respiratory infectious diseases in children. This study follows the PRISMA flow guidelines for systematic reviews and the standards of meta-analysis for 20 quantitative studies conducted from 2016 to 2022 including 2,184,407 participants. As evidenced from the review, in the U.S., racial disparities are present among children, with Hispanic and Black children carrying the burden of infectious respiratory disease occurrence. Several factors are contributory to these outcomes among Hispanic and Black children, including higher rates of poverty; higher rates of chronic conditions, such as asthma and obesity; and seeking care outside of the home. However, vaccinations can be used to reduce the risk of infection among Black and Hispanic children. Whether a child is very young or a teen, racial disparities are present in occurrence rates of infectious respiratory diseases, with the burden resting among minorities. Therefore, it is important for parents to be aware of the risk of infectious diseases and to be aware of resources, such as vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transplant registries in the US do not collect information about community level risk factors. We utilized a community level socio-economic risk indicator, the distressed communities' index to understand its association with clinical presentation among children listed for heart transplant (HT). We found that currently, majority (40%) of children listed from distressed communities are Black. On multivariable analysis, compared to children from prosperous communities, those from distressed communities listed for HT were significantly more likely to be Status 1A (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.39) and on a ventricular assist device (aOR 1.44). Compared to White children from prosperous communities, both Black and White children from distressed communities were more likely to be listed Status 1A (aOR 2.1 and 1.36 respectively) and have renal dysfunction (aOR 1.71 and 1.52 respectively). In conclusion, heart failure severity at listing appears more likely associated with community-level risk factors and less so with child's race/ethnicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Albert Beckham, who was the first Black school psychologist in the U.S., frequently used intelligence tests with Black children. This usage required clinical decision making to explain the results obtained from psychoeducational assessments. In their discussion of this aspect of Beckham's work, introduce the concept of Culturally Relevant Clinical Judgement. This paper discusses issues related to the continued use of cognitive assessment instruments as it relates to clinical judgment in special education eligibility decision-making in comparison to alternatives such as Response-to-Intervention (RtI). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The prison abolition movement has brought attention to the American carceral crisis, or better yet, the mass incarceration and disproportionate criminalization of Black people in America. It has also led to and fomented recent calls to defund prison systems, the police, and to remove police from schools. While discussions of prison abolition have been addressed in the carceral studies literature, they are seldom addressed in the education literature and particularly in early childhood education. Given the ways in which young Black children are and have been negatively impacted by issues of mass incarceration (e.g. absence of family members, school-prison nexus), the lack of attention to the American carceral crisis and teaching about prison abolition is beyond concerning and contributes to the stanchless anti-Black violence Black children face in early childhood classrooms. Drawing on Pro-Blackness, the imprisoned Black radical tradition, and abolitionist teaching, we introduce what we term prison abolition literacies– literacies practices that bring awareness to the injustices of the carceral state and encourage young children to become prison abolitionists––so that teachers can infuse prison abolition into the early childhood education curriculum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper comes from developments in the research “Protection and guarantee systems for human rights aimed at children and youth in Portugal, Angola, Brazil, and Mozambique.” We reflect on the lack of protection for children and adolescents in Brazil, analyzing it from the point of view of structural racism in a colonial context, in the post-Abolition period, as well as its persistence in the process of consolidating capitalism and its contemporary expressions. We mention two emblematic cases of violence against black children that occurred during the pandemic, thus demonstrating that the tragedy caused by the crisis of capital, along with the crisis of public health and other elements aggravated by the COVID19 pandemic, is the persistence and exacerbation of coloniality and racism that has plagued Brazil for over 500 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

I write as an ethnographer of childhoods and literacies toshare a critical methodological lesson I have learned: simply observing children in educational settings will not yield rich understandings of the inequities arising from the interplay of societal constructs of race, class, and gender. Such understandings require ethnographic digs, analogous to those of geologists and archeologists. Surface level educational happenings must be situated in institutional, geographic, and ideological landscapes, both historical and sociopolitical. These foundational layers echo in both formal and informal school practices, including those of peers. To illustrate, I draw on data from a 4-year case study of Ta'Von, a Black child in a white-majority elementary school; I focus on his experiences in 'the achievement gap.' Those experiences, reverberating with local racialized history, suggest that inclusive schools require, not fixing children to eliminate a gap, but fixing the taken-for-granted assumptions and practices of schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite research going back over a century showing the U.S. census counts some groups more accurately than others at the national level, little is known about how undercount varies within the country. I focus on a population easily measured with administrative data yet known to suffer high levels of undercount—native-born young children—to document state-level variation in undercount by race and Hispanic status. Although the race-specific analysis is only possible for the 2000 census, the patterns I show for all children are similar to those in 2010, implying the results from 2000 are likely relevant to today. Undercount levels vary widely across states, with non-Black children having the highest rates in the south and southwest, and Black children in the northeast. Results by Hispanic status show non-Black Hispanic young children are highly undercounted in several states with high Hispanic populations, but not all, and are also highly undercounted in the northeast and New England. In several states with high non-Black Hispanic undercounts, non-Black non-Hispanic children are also undercounted at a high rate. I find a very strong correlation between the fraction of births to foreign-born mothers in the state and the undercount of Black and non-Black children—in fact, it is the strongest correlate with the undercount of native-born Black children of those I investigate. The fraction of foreign-born mothers does not correlate with the undercount of non-Black Hispanic and non-Hispanic young children, although Hispanic status of the parents do. My results suggest a group-specific, local focus for future work is needed to determine the causes of census undercount. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nephrotic syndrome, especially the steroid-resistant form, is often complicated by hypertension in childhood. The syndrome is common in black children. However, the histopathological finding of membranous nephropathy in children with nephrotic syndrome is rare. Liddle's syndrome is a rare genetic abnormality that presents with salt-sensitive hypertension caused by constitutive activation of the amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium channel. The epithelial sodium channel comprises homologous a, ß, and? subunits that share similar structures. Gene mutations associated with Liddle's syndrome occur in either the ß or? subunits and disturb or truncate a conserved proline-rich sequence (i.e., PY motif), leading to constitutive activation of the epithelial sodium channel. The association of nephrotic syndrome with Liddle's syndrome has only been described in an adult patient. We present here the first case of these two syndromes (nephrotic syndrome and Liddle's-like syndrome) co-existing in a child with membranous nephropathy in his histopathological finding on kidney biopsy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Vitamin D status at birth is reliant on maternal-fetal transfer of vitamin D during gestation.Objectives: We aimed to examine the vitamin D status of newborn infants in a diverse population and to subsequently identify the modifiable correlates of vitamin D status.Methods: In this cross-sectional study, healthy mother-infant dyads (n = 1035) were recruited within 36 h after term delivery (March 2016-March 2019). Demographic and lifestyle factors were surveyed. Newborn serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] was measured (standardized chemiluminescence immunoassay) and categorized as deficient [serum 25(OH)D <30 nmol/L] or adequate (≥40 nmol/L). Serum 25(OH)D was compared among categories of maternal characteristics using ANOVA; each characteristic was tested in a separate model. Subgroups (use of multivitamins preconception and continued in pregnancy compared with during pregnancy only) were matched (n = 352/group) for maternal factors (ancestry, age, income, education, parity, and prepregnancy BMI) using propensity scores; logistic regression models were generated for odds of deficiency or adequacy.Results: Infants' mean serum 25(OH)D was 45.9 nmol/L (95% CI: 44.7, 47.0 nmol/L) (n = 1035), with 20.8% (95% CI: 18.3%, 23.2%) deficient and 60.7% (95% CI: 55.2%, 66.2%) adequate. Deficiency prevalence ranged from 14.6% of white infants to 41.7% of black infants. Serum 25(OH)D was higher (P < 0.0001) in infants of mothers with higher income, BMI < 25 kg/m2, exercise and sun exposure in pregnancy, and use of multivitamins preconception. In the matched-subgroup analysis, multivitamin supplementation preconception plus during pregnancy relative to only during pregnancy was associated with lower odds for vitamin D deficiency (ORadj: 0.55; 95% CI: 0.36, 0.86) and higher odds for adequate vitamin D status (ORadj: 1.47; 95% CI: 1.04, 2.07).Conclusions: In this study most newborn infants had adequate vitamin D status, yet one-fifth were vitamin D deficient with disparities between population groups. Guidelines for a healthy pregnancy recommend maternal use of multivitamins preconception and continuing in pregnancy. An emphasis on preconception use may help to achieve adequate neonatal vitamin D status.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02563015. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Is it possible to address racism without mentioning race? Based on two cases from an ethnographical field study conducted in a Danish elementary school, this article investigates how students of colour (aged 10–13) predict future encounters with racism and share their concerns with how to deal with these potential encounters. Inspired by Sara Ahmed's notion of emotions and concept of past histories of contact and pushes, this article examines how to understand emotions of race when two students share their concerns about for instance, being able to defend themselves and verbalize fear of not belonging. What I am suggesting is that emotions of race are not only shaped by the students' past experiences but that race also works through emotions of concern about the future as racialized forecasting. These racialized forecastings surface as experiences connected to the children's black and brown bodies, where their emotions of race intersect with ideas of gender and age. The analysis will show how the children struggle to address their race experiences as they push and are being pushed by race-blind discourses, making it very difficult for the students to make sense of their feelings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The aim of this study was to determine whether long-standing racial disparities in lead exposure still exists for children age 1–5 years old. We examined if blood lead levels were higher among non-Hispanic Black children and others compared to non-Hispanic White children. Methods: Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 1999-2016 were used. Geometric mean blood lead levels (BLLs) were compared by race/ethnicity using log-transformed simple linear regression. Associations between race and elevated BLL were assessed using weighted Chi-square tests. Log-transformed multiple weighted linear regression was used to assess what factors affected BLLs. Results: A total of 6772 children were included in this study. In 1999–2000, the geometric mean BLL for non-Hispanic Black children was 3.08 μg/dL, compared to 2.03 μg/dL for non-Hispanic White children (p = 0.01). The difference in geometric mean BLL between non-Hispanic Black children and non-Hispanic White children continued to be statistically significant in later years (all p < 0.05) until 2015-2016 (0.89 μg/dL vs 0.74 μg/dL, p = 0.17). Log-transformed linear regression showed that being non-Hispanic Black and having low family income were independently associated with higher BLL. Conclusion: Although lead exposure in the general population continued to decline for all racial/ethnic groups, non-Hispanic Black children still had higher BLL than non-Hispanic White children. In more recent years, the racial/ethnic gap was lesser but persisted. Racial/ethnic disparity in childhood BLL could be partially explained by socio-economic factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Although the putamen has a significant role in reward-seeking and motivated behaviors, including eating and food-seeking, minorities' diminished returns (MDRs) suggest that individual-level risk and protective factors have weaker effects for Non-Hispanic Black than Non-Hispanic White individuals. However, limited research is available on the relevance of MDRs in terms of the role of putamen functional connectivity on body mass index (BMI). Purpose: Building on the MDRs framework and conceptualizing race and socioeconomic status (SES) indicators as social constructs, we explored racial and SES differences in the associations between putamen functional connectivity to the salience network and children's BMI. Methods: For this cross-sectional study, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data of 6473 9-10-year-old Non-Hispanic Black and Non-Hispanic White children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The primary independent variable was putamen functional connectivity to the salience network, measured by fMRI. The primary outcome was the children's BMI. Age, sex, neighborhood income, and family structure were the covariates. Race, family structure, parental education, and household income were potential moderators. For data analysis, we used mixed-effect models in the overall sample and by race. Results: Higher right putamen functional connectivity to the salience network was associated with higher BMI in Non-Hispanic White children. The same association was missing for Non-Hispanic Black children. While there was no overall association in the pooled sample, a significant interaction was found, suggesting that the association between right putamen functional connectivity to the salience network and children's BMI was modified by race. Compared to Non-Hispanic White children, Non-Hispanic Black children showed a weaker association between right putamen functional connectivity to the salience network and BMI. While parental education and household income did not moderate our association of interest, marital status altered the associations between putamen functional connectivity to the salience network and children's BMI. These patterns were observed for right but not left putamen. Other/Mixed Race children also showed a pattern similar to Non-Hispanic Black children. Conclusions: The association between right putamen functional connectivity to the salience network and children's BMI may depend on race and marital status but not parental education and household income. While right putamen functional connectivity to the salience network is associated with Non-Hispanic White children's BMI, Non-Hispanic Black children' BMI remains high regardless of their putamen functional connectivity to the salience network. This finding is in line with MDRs, which attributes diminished effects of individual-risk and protective factors for Non-Hispanic Black children to racism, stratification, and segregation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper employs a critical race theory (CRT) perspective to probe the experiences of skilled African migrants parenting Black children in Australia, a predominantly White country. Two key themes emerged from this study: (1) the need to explicitly teach children about race and racism and to foster positive racial identities and (2) the complexities of navigating tensions between 'African' and 'Western' cultural values. Participants demonstrated high levels of awareness of intercultural parenting approaches and a desire to blend the best aspects of African and Australian cultural values in their own parenting practice. A significant paradox was also apparent in the tension between parental desires to inculcate pride in African ancestry and culture, while simultaneously encouraging children to 'curate' their blackness to minimize experiences of racialization. Social workers in Australia often play a critical role in the lives of migrant families as they support them to negotiate transitions in parenting contexts. Although this paper only offers a perspective on the parenting experiences of skilled African migrants and how they creatively manage the tensions and change emerging from this process, we suggest that this understanding helps to expand knowledge on the complexity of parenting in multicultural, transcultural and intercultural contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In the United States social disparities in health outcomes are found wherever they are sought, and they have been documented extensively in trauma care. Because social factors cannot cause a trauma outcome directly, there must exist mediating causal factors related to the nature and severity of the injury, the robustness of the victim, access to care, or processes of care. An understanding these mediators is the point of departure for addressing inequities in outcomes. Findings: Data were extracted from the registry of the Trauma Quality Improvement Program of the American College of Surgeons for 2007 through 2010. Inclusion criteria were age less than 19 years and head Abbreviated Injury Scale score of 4, 5, or 6. An Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition was undertaken to analyze the relative contributions of a large set of covariates to the difference in mortality rates between Black and White children. Covariates were aggregated into the following categories: "Severity," "Structure and Process," "Mechanism," "Demographics," and "Insurance." Eligible for analysis were 7273 White children and 2320 Black children. There were 1661 deaths (17.3%) The raw mortality rates were 15.6 and 22.8% for White and Black children, respectively. Factors categorized as "Severity" accounted for 95% of the mortality difference, "Mechanism" accounted for 13%, "Insurance" accounted for 5%, and "Demographics" accounted for 2%. The contribution of "Structure and Process" did not attain statistical significance. Conclusions: Severity of injury accounts for most of the disparity between Black and White children in traumatic brain injury mortality rates. Mechanism, insurance status, and gender make a small contributions. Because insurance status like other social factors cannot directly affect trauma survival, what mediates its contribution requires further study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To assess trends in consumption of soda, sweetened fruit drinks/sports drinks and any sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) from 2013 to 2016 among all children in California aged 2-5 and 6-11 years and by racial-ethnic group.Design: Serial cross-sectional study using the California Health Interview Survey (CHIS).Setting: CHIS is a telephone survey of households in California designed to assess population-level estimates of key health behaviours. Previous research using CHIS documented a decrease in SSB consumption among children in California from 2003 to 2009 coinciding with state-level policy efforts targeting child SSB consumption.Participants: Parents of children in California aged 2-11 years (n 4901 in 2013-2014; n 3606 in 2015-2016) were surveyed about the child's consumption of soda and sweetened fruit drinks/sports drinks on the day prior.Results: Among 2-5-year-olds, consumption of soda, sweetened fruit drinks/sports drinks and any SSB remained stable. Sweetened fruit drink/sports drink consumption was higher than soda consumption in this age group. Latino 2-5- year-olds were more likely to consume any SSB in both 2013-2014 and 2015-2016 compared with Whites. Among 6-11-year-olds, consumption of soda, sweetened fruit drinks/sports drinks and any SSB also remained stable over time. Latino and African-American 6-11-year-olds were more likely to consume an SSB in 2013-2014 compared with White children.Conclusions: SSB consumption among children in California was unchanged from 2013 to 2016 and racial-ethnic disparities were evident. Increased policy efforts are needed to further reduce SSB consumption, particularly among children of Latino and African-American backgrounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Black stains are extrinsic discoloration in primary dentition that can also occur along with dental caries. It clinically presents as pigmented, dark lines or as an incomplete coalescence of dark dots rarely extending beyond the cervical third of the crown. This has often been a concern of dental aesthetics and its frequent recurrence, makes it necessary to find the causative factor and the treatment needed. Materials and Method: In this cross sectional study, 93 children aged between 6-12years were examined clinically for the presence of black stains using mouth mirror and dental probe by one examiner. The DMFS / deft index were recorded in children with and without black stains. Results: In the limited sample size recorded, it was observed that 11 children had black stains. Black stains were also found along with dental caries in 3 children. The p value was 0.85373, found to be insignificant Conclusion: The prevalence rate of black stains is estimated to be 10% from the sample size, as per data collected, Black stains can occur along with caries but the incidence is less. In conclusion, the results of our study, indicates the prevalence of caries along with the black stains in children within the age group 6-12 years, highlight the need to do further investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While much has been written about the Black Panther Party's politics, children comprise an under-studied cohort of the Black Power era. As students of the BPP's political education classes and central figures in Party writings, young people were readily imagined and mobilized in the organization's grassroots movement. Through close engagement with the Party's official newspaper, I argue that children, and ideas about them, spurred members to imagine a future void of racial and class disparity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this cross-sectional study, the accuracy of Cameriere's European formula was tested and a new specific model was developed for two samples of black and white South African children with known age and sex. For these purposes, 970 children of black South African ethnicity (girls 491, boys 479) and 974 with European ethnicity, living in South Africa (girls 493, boys 481), were retrospectively analyzed. The application of the European formula showed that there is a trend in the error estimates: the ages of the younger children are overestimated and those of the older children are underestimated, in both white and black children. A new model, based on the relationship between the apical width and the tooth length (maturity index) of the seven permanent mandibular teeth, was therefore constructed. The new developed equation for the South African population was able to explain 76% of total variance in white girls and 80% in white boys' subgroup. On the other side, the model explained 76% of total variance in black girls and 78% in the black boys' subgroup. The mean absolute error of the residuals (residuals = predicted age minus observed age) ranged from 0.718 to 0.769 years, with the interquartile range (IQRres) ranging from 1.19 to 1.31 years. Differently from the Cameriere's European formula, the plot did not tend to underestimate the chronological age significantly as the age increases. Cameriere's maturity index is reproducible in both samples of South African black and white children, for forensic purposes, and the Bayesian calibration approach is useful for a more accurate and precise estimation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using the qualitative approach of Moustakas' (1994) transcendental phenomenology, seven formerly incarcerated Black fathers responded to semistructured interviews about their parenting experiences following incarceration. Participants discussed what influenced the relationship they have and would like to have with their children. Findings showed that most Black fathers (a) felt that their parenting habits were influenced by past experiences; (b) were in contact with their children; and (c) stated that their personal growth influenced their desire to be better parents. Findings call for strength-based approaches, rather than deficit perspectives, to increase father involvement and decrease risk factors among children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Prior studies have shown racial differences in concussion awareness and outcome. Objective: To assess if racial or ethnic differences exist in Emergency Department (ED) utilization and diagnosis for children with sports-related head injuries. Methods: We performed a retrospective, cross-sectional analysis of ED visits from 2008 to 2017 using National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) data. Population-weighted ED visits for children age 7–18 years with a sport-related injury were included. We compared the probability of an ED visit being for an injury to the head or diagnosed as a concussion between children of different races/ethnicities. Analyses were adjusted for age, gender, sport, year, and location where the injury occurred. Results: We identified 11,529,994 population-weighted ED visits for pediatric sports-related injuries, of which 1,497,717 (13.0%) were injuries to the head and 619,714 (5.4%) received a diagnosis of concussion. Black children were significantly less likely than non-Hispanic white children to have their ED visit be for an injury to the head [Odds Ratio (OR) 0.72, 95%CI 0.65–0.79] or concussion (OR 0.58, 95%CI 0.50–0.68). Black children presenting to the ED with an injury to their head were less likely than non-Hispanic white children to be diagnosed with a concussion (OR = 0.71, 95%CI 0.59–0.85). Conclusions: Racial differences exist in both ED utilization for pediatric sports-related head injuries and in the diagnosis of concussion. Further work is needed to understand these differences to ensure all brain injured athletes receive optimal care, regardless of race. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Survival among children after UCBT has improved substantially over the past 20years. • Nearly half of the improved survival was related to a decline in aspergillosis. • Voriconazole prophylaxis was associated with lower aspergillosis mortality. • Improved strategies to prevent and treat adenovirus, CMV, and GVHD are needed. Abstract Infections and graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) have historically resulted in high mortality among children undergoing umbilical cord blood transplantation (UCBT). However, recent advances in clinical practice have likely improved outcomes of these patients. We conducted a retrospective cohort study of children (<18years of age) undergoing UCBT at Duke University between January 1, 1995 and December 31, 2014. We compared 2-year all-cause and cause-specific mortality during 3 time periods based on year of transplantation (1995 to 2001, 2002 to 2007, and 2008 to 2014). We used multivariable Cox regression to identify demographic and UCBT characteristics that were associated with all-cause mortality, transplantation-related mortality, and death from invasive aspergillosis after adjustment for time period. During the 20-year study period 824 children underwent UCBT. Two-year all-cause mortality declined from 48% in 1995 to 2001 to 30% in 2008 to 2014 (P =.0002). White race and nonmalignant UCBT indications were associated with lower mortality. Black children tended to have a higher risk of death for which GVHD (18% versus 11%; P =.06) or graft failure (9% versus 3%; P =. 01) were contributory than white children. Comparing 2008 to 2014 with 1995 to 2001, more than half (59%) of the reduced mortality was attributable to a reduction in infectious mortality, with 45% specifically related to reduced mortality from invasive aspergillosis. Antifungal prophylaxis with voriconazole was associated with lower mortality from invasive aspergillosis than low-dose amphotericin B lipid complex (hazard ratio,.09; 95% confidence interval,.01 to.76). With the decline in mortality from invasive aspergillosis, adenovirus and cytomegalovirus have become the most frequentinfectious causes of death in children after UCBT. Advances in clinical practice over the past 20years improved survival of children after UCBT. Reduced mortality from infections, particularly invasive aspergillosis, accounted for the largest improvement in survival and was associated with use of voriconazole for antifungal prophylaxis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to better understand residential segregation and child/youth health by examining the relationship between a measure of Black-White residential segregation, the index of dissimilarity, and a suite of child and youth health measures in 235 U.S. metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs). MSAs are urban areas with a population of 50,000 or more and adjacent communities that share a high degree of economic and social integration. MSAs are defined by the Office of Management and Budget. Health-related measures included child mortality (CDC WONDER), teen births (NCHS natality data), children in poverty (SAIPE program), and disconnected youth (Measure of America). Simple linear regression and two-level hierarchical linear regression models, controlling for income, total population, % Black, and census region, examined the association between segregation and Black health, White health, and Black-White disparities in health. As segregation increased, Black children and youth had worse health across all four measures, regardless of MSA total and Black population size. White children and youth in small MSAs with large Black populations had worse levels of disconnected youth and teen births with increasing segregation, but no associations were found for White children and youth in other MSAs. Segregation worsened Black-White health disparities across all four measures, regardless of MSA total and Black population size. Segregation adversely affects the health of Black children in all MSAs and White children in smaller MSAs with large Black populations, and these effects are seen in measures that span all of childhood. Residential segregation may be an important target to consider in efforts to improve neighborhood conditions that influence the health of families and children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Waist circumference (WC) is a useful predictor of cardiometabolic risk in children. Published data on WC percentiles of children from African countries are limited. Objectives. To describe age- and sex-specific WC percentiles in black South African (SA) children from different study sites, and compare these percentiles with median WC percentiles of African-American (AA) children. Methods. Secondary data on WC for 10 - 14-year-old black SA children (N=4 954; 2 406 boys and 2 548 girls) were extracted from the data sets of six studies. Smoothed WC percentile curves for boys and girls were constructed using the LMS method. The 50th percentile for age- and sex-specific WC measurements was compared across study sites and with AA counterparts. Results. Girls had higher WC values than boys from the 50th to 95th percentiles at all ages. The 50th WC percentiles of all groups of SA children combined were lower than those of AA children. When SA groups were considered separately, Western Cape children had median WC values similar to AA children, while rural Limpopo children had the lowest WC values. The 95th percentiles for Western Cape girls exceeded the adult cutoff point for metabolic syndrome (WC =80 cm) from age 11 years. Conclusions. The differences in WC values for 10 - 14-year-old children across the six study sites highlight the need for nationally representative data to develop age-, sex- and ethnic-specific WC percentiles for black SA children. The results raise concerns about high WC among Western Cape girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With health disparities still pervasive and persistent in the United States, medical researchers and social scientists continue to develop recruitment strategies to increase the inclusion of racial/ethnic minority groups in research and interventions. Effective methods for recruiting samples of African American participants for pediatric research may be best understood when situated within an overarching conceptual model—one that serves to organize and explain effective recruitment strategies. A theoretical framework well suited for this purpose is Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, which views individuals as influencing and being influenced by (both directly and indirectly) a series of interconnected social systems. Based on the ecological systems theory and on previous research from multiple domains (e.g., medicine, psychology, public health, social work), in the current article, we review strategies for effective recruitment of African American children and adolescents for research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Background: Resting energy expenditure (REE), adjusted for total lean mass (LM), is lower in African American (AA) than Caucasian American (CA) children. Some adult studies suggest that AA–CA differences in lean mass compartments explain this REE difference. Similar data are limited in children. Objective: To evaluate differences in compartment‐specific lean mass between AA and CA children and examine the individual contributions of high‐metabolic rate‐at‐rest trunk lean mass (TrLM) and low‐metabolic‐rate‐at‐rest appendicular lean mass (AppLM) for AA–CA differences in REE. Methods: We studied a convenience sample of 594 AA (n = 281) and CA (n = 313) children. REE was measured by using indirect calorimetry; dual‐energy X‐ray absorptiometry was used to assess body composition. ANCOVAs were performed to examine AA–CA differences in TrLM, AppLM and REE. After accounting for age, sex, height, pubertal development, bone mass and adiposity, REE was evaluated adjusting for total LM (model A) and separately adjusting for TrLM and AppLM (model B). Results: African American children had greater adjusted AppLM (17.8 ± 0.2 [SE] vs. 16.0 ± 0.2 kg, p < 0.001) and lower TrLM (17.2 ± 0.2 vs. 17.7 ± 0.2 kg, p = 0.022) than CA children. REE adjusted for total LM was 77 ± 16 kcal/d lower in AA than CA (p < 0.001). However, after accounting separately for AppLM and TrLM, the discrepancy in REE between the groups declined to 28 ± 19 kcal/d (p = 0.14). In the adjusted model, both TrLM (p < 0.001) and AppLM (p < 0.027) were independently associated with REE. Conclusion: In children, AA–CA differences in REE appear mostly attributable to differences in body composition. Lower REE in AA children is likely due to lower TrLM and greater AppLM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The goal of the current study was to examine the impact of dialect density on the growth of oral language and reading skills in a sample of African American English (AAE)-speaking children reared in urban communities. Method: Eight hundred thirty-five African American children in first through fifth grades participated. Using an accelerated cohort design, univariate and bivariate growth models were employed to examine dialect density, oral language and reading, and the relationships between these variables. Results: For the univariate models, results indicated that (a) dialect density decreased over time by approximately 5% per year beyond first grade, (b) language skills improved approximately 0.5 SD per year, and (c) reading comprehension increased significantly from first to second grade and slowed 23% per year in second through fifth grades. Results from the bivariate models revealed that (a) dialect density and language ability are negatively associated, although dialect density did not affect change in language over time, and (b) higher dialect density is related to slower growth in reading. Conclusions: Findings from this investigation provide converging evidence for accounts in the extant literature particularly supporting a negative relationship between dialect density and oral language and between dialect density and reading while also contributing novel longitudinal evidence that suggests that changes in dialect use over time may be driven by oral language skills and that reading and dialect have a reciprocal relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

El presente artículo aborda las ideas de Lourdes Casal sobre la discriminación racial y el mestizaje en Cuba a través de sus artículos académicos, sus cuentos y, sobre todo, su ensayo autobiográfico "Memories of a Black Cuban Childhood" (1978). A diferencia de otros autores que, en las décadas de 1960 y 1970, hicieron hincapié en el vigor del racismo en la isla, Casal resalta en sus estudios las posibilidades de la integración racial. Pero si bien celebró los éxitos de la Revolución cubana para eliminar legalmente la discriminación racial, tampoco ignoró los desafíos pendientes para alcanzar una "verdadera cultura mestiza". El potencial del mestizaje es clave para entender el pensamiento de Casal sobre Cuba y su propia subjetividad. Si bien se atiene al mestizaje como intrínseco a la identidad nacional cubana, Casal lo asume subrayando el componente negro de la mezcla racial. Su experiencia diaspórica, que la expuso a diferentes constructos de lo racial tanto en los Estados Unidos como en África, influyó en su reformulación del concepto, llevándola a realzar la negritud dentro de los límites del mestizaje. Se trata de un mestizaje activista que en lugar de encubrir las diferencias, las trae a colación. Through a review of her academic essays, short stories, and autobiographical essay "Memories of a Black Cuban Childhood" (1978), this article addresses Lourdes Casal's ideas about racial discrimination and mestizaje. In contrast with other authors who in the 1960s and 1970s called attention to the robust racism on the island, Casal in her work stresses the possibilities of racial integration. She celebrated the successes that had been legally achieved in Cuba under the revolution at the same time that she denounced the remnants of racism. There was much that still needed to be overcome to reach a "true mulatto culture". The potential of mestizaje is key to an understanding of Casal's thoughts about race in Cuba and her own subjectivity. Although she adheres to mestizaje as intrinsic to Cuban national identity, Casal highlights the Black, devalued component of the racial mixture. Her diasporic experience, which exposed her to various constructs of race both in the United States and in Africa, had a major impact on [End Page 63] this reconceptualization of race. Instead of concealing the differences, her advocacy of mestizaje brings them to the fore. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the United States, increased national attention has generated a wealth of public health and epidemiologic research examining disparities in African American children’s mental health services utilization. Research has not yet been extended to examining the social structural mechanisms that keep these disparities stable and in place. Drawing from a larger urban ethnographic field study exploring the ‘everyday’ of health and illness within and across African American families living in an inner city public housing community, in this article I document the narratives of four African American mothers to illustrate how social structural mechanisms shape their decisions to seek or not mental health services for their children. I frame mothers’ decisions in terms ofeveryday violence, drawing attention to the institutionalized injustices that are normalized and rendered invisible because of their routine pervasiveness. I conclude with a discussion of integrating structural interventions to modify or reduce disparities in African American children’s mental health services utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Purpose: This study investigated whether measures of early social communication vary among young children of diverse racial/ethnic status with and without autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Method: Participants were 364 toddlers between ages 18 and 36 months with a diagnosis of ASD confirmed (n = 195) or ruled out (n = 169), from 3 racial/ethnic categories: nonHispanic White (n = 226), non-Hispanic Black (n = 74), and Hispanic (n = 64). Group differences in social communication were examined using an observational measure—the Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scales Behavior Sample (CSBS-BS; Wetherby & Prizant, 2002)—and a parent-report measure, the Early Screening for Autism and Communication Disorders (Wetherby, Woods, & Lord, 2007). Results: Controlling for maternal education, children with ASD scored significantly lower on the CSBS-BS than children without, indicating poorer social communication skills, and higher on the Early Screening for Autism and Communication Disorders, indicating more ASD features. Racial/ethnic groups did not differ on 6 CSBS-BS clusters, but Non-Hispanic White toddlers scored significantly higher than both other groups on the Understanding cluster. There were no significant Diagnosis × Race/Ethnicity interactions. Conclusion: These findings indicate good agreement between observed and parent-report measures in this sample. Results suggest that the CSBS-BS and Early Screening for Autism and Communication Disorders could be viable tools in the detection process for toddlers with ASD in these racial/ethnic groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using data from the 1995 and 2006-2010 National Survey of Family Growth, the authors' study examined children's family instability from birth to age 12, emphasizing variation by racial and ethnic group. Period and cohort estimates revealed little change in children's experiences of family transitions during the past decade. Family instability levels were comparable for White and Hispanic children, and this pattern persisted over time. However, there was an increase in family instability among Black children, reflecting growth in the share of children born to single mothers who eventually formed partnerships. Indeed, children born to single mothers in the more recent cohort experienced more family transitions, on average, than did the earlier cohort, but family instability for children born to cohabiting mothers remained unchanged. This study elucidates the various family life course trajectories children experience, revealing how these patterns differ depending on family context at birth and by racial and ethnic group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study argues that the under-diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactive disorder in Black children is a result of racism that is structurally and institutionally embedded within school policing policies and the tendency to not recognize Black illness. The purpose of this research is to examine how micro-processes lead to structural inequality within education for Black children. It seeks to better understand how institutional racism and flawed behavioral ascriptions lead to the under-diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) in Black children and how that may also contribute to their over-representation in the 'school-to-prison pipeline.' The goal of this study was to review ethnographic, empirical data and examine the ways (1) how racism within some schools may contribute to the under-diagnosis of ADHD in Black children, (2) how their under-diagnosis and lack of treatment leads to their over-punishment, and (3) how they are over-represented in today's school-to-prison pipeline phenomenon, possibly as a result of such disparities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine craniometric and velopharyngeal anatomy among young children (4-8 years of age) with normal anatomy across Black and White racial groups. Method: Thirty-two healthy children (16 White and 16 Black) with normal velopharyngeal anatomy participated and successfully completed the magnetic resonance imaging scans. Measurements included 11 craniofacial and 9 velopharyngeal measures. Results: Two-way analysis of covariance was used to determine the effects of race and sex on velopharyngeal measures and all craniometric measures except head circumference. Head circumference was included as a covariate to control for overall cranial size. Sex did not have a significant effect on any of the craniometric measures. Significant racial differences were demonstrated for face height. A significant race effect was also observed for mean velar length, velar thickness, and velopharyngeal ratio. Conclusion: The present study provides separate craniofacial and velopharyngeal values for young Black and White children. Data from this study can be used to examine morphological variations with respect to race and sex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study investigated the fictional narrative performance of school-age African American children across 3 elicitation contexts that differed in the type of visual stimulus presented. Method: A total of 54 children in Grades 2 through 5 produced narratives across 3 different visual conditions: no visual, picture sequence, and single picture. Narratives were examined for visual condition differences in expressive elaboration rate, number of different word roots (NDW) rate, mean length of utterance in words, and dialect density. The relationship between diagnostic risk for language impairment and narrative variables was explored. Results: Expressive elaboration rate and mean length of utterance in words were higher in the no-visual condition than in either the picture-sequence or the single-picture conditions. NDW rate was higher in the no-visual and picture-sequence conditions than in the single-picture condition. Dialect density performance across visual context depended on the child's grade, so that younger children produced a higher rate of African American English in the no-visual condition than did older children. Diagnostic risk was related to NDW rate and dialect density measure. Conclusion: The results suggest the need for narrative elicitation contexts that include verbal as well as visual tasks to fully describe the narrative performance of school-age African American children with typical development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Sodium intake is high in US children. Data are limited on the dietary sources of sodium, especially from birth to age 24 mo. OBJECTIVE: We identified top sources of dietary sodium in US children from birth to age 24 mo. DESIGN: Data from the NHANES 2003-2010 were used to examine food sources of sodium (population proportions and mean intakes) in 778 participants aged 0-5.9 mo, 914 participants aged 6-11.9 mo, and 1219 participants aged 12-23.9 mo by sociodemographic characteristics. RESULTS: Overall, mean dietary sodium intake was low in 0-5.9-mo-old children, and the top contributors were formula (71.7%), human milk (22.9%), and commercial baby foods (2.2%). In infants aged 6-11.9 mo, the top 5 contributors were formula (26.7%), commercial baby foods (8.8%), soups (6.1%), pasta mixed dishes (4.0%), and human milk (3.9%). In children aged 12-23.9 mo, the top contributors were milk (12.2%), soups (5.4%), cheese (5.2%), pasta mixed dishes (5.1%), and frankfurters and sausages (4.6%). Despite significant variation in top food categories across racial/ethnic groups, commercial baby foods were a top food contributor in children aged 6-11.9 mo, and frankfurters and sausages were a top food contributor in children aged 12-23.9 mo. The top 5 food categories that contributed to sodium intake also differed by sex. Most of the sodium consumed (83-90%) came from store foods (e.g., from the supermarket). In children aged 12-23.9 mo, 9% of sodium consumed came from restaurant foods, and 4% of sodium came from childcare center foods. CONCLUSIONS: The vast majority of sodium consumed comes from foods other than infant formula or human milk after the age of 6 mo. Although the majority of sodium intake was from store foods, after age 12 mo, restaurant foods contribute significantly to intake. Reducing the sodium content in these settings would reduce sodium intake in the youngest consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]