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The aquatic environment, linked to the sustainable development of human existence and ecological environment, is influenced comprehensively by anthropogenic and natural activities. In light of the continuously low concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) in surface water in plain river networks and the phenomenon of delay in the improvement of surface water quality, this research aims to introduce a method that may be utilized in identifying the critical driving forces of DO in surface water and their lagging characteristics, which will contribute to the assessment and adjustment of water quality drivers and/or policies. The research analyzes a typical small watershed in a river network region of the Yangtze River Delta plain as the study area, collecting 35-year (1986-2020) data on several water quality parameters, decades of anthropogenic activities, and two natural factors. The time series methods of vector autoregressive model, Granger causality tests, forecast error variance decompositions, and impulse response functions (hereinafter referred to as VAR+), which are rarely applied in related research, were employed in this study and proved helpful for screening out pivotal drivers and capturing the lagging responses of DO level to driving forces at each lagged time. Results show that there exists a fluctuating drop in DO level in surface water from 1986 to 2008 and a steady climb from 2008 to 2020, with the lowest DO level being present in 2008. The impulsive perturbations of phosphate fertilizer consumption (PFC), motor vessel number, and precipitation minimally increase DO concentration, while the impulsive perturbation of gross domestic product (GDP) causes the sharpest drop in DO level. With these perturbations, the driving force of PFC persists for approximately seven years, and the driving forces of water temperature, permanent population, and GDP persist for only five years. Future research could be conducted with spatial hysteresis, selection of lag order and variable quantity within the model, as well as intermediate variables between drivers and DO level for exploring driving pathways and mechanisms.

Characterizing the occurrence of organic contaminants (OCs) of environmental health concern in municipal sewage sludges is essential for safe handling and disposal of these abundant materials. This meta-analysis aimed to (i) summarize the extent of studies performed on the chemical composition of sewage sludges from China and the U.S., the world’s two largest chemical producers, (ii) identify chemical groups of priority concern, (iii) quantitatively compare chemical abundance in sludge between nations, (iv) determine longitudinal contaminant accumulation trends in sludge, and (v) identify data gaps with regard to OC concentrations in sludge. A literature search was conducted on concentrations of OCs in U.S. sludges produced during treatment of domestic and industrial wastewater and compared statistically to contaminant levels in Chinese sludge abstracted from a recently established database. Longitudinal trends of OC occurrence were interpreted in the context of national chemical production, usage statistics, and regulations. A total of 105 studies on OCs in U.S. sewage sludge were found, while a total of 159 had been found in China. Among 1,175 OCs monitored for, 23% of all analytes had been monitored in both countries (n = 269), 41% (n = 480) in China only, and the remaining 36% (n = 426) in the U.S. only. On average, concentrations of OCs were 4.0 times higher in U.S. than in Chinese sewage sludge, with the highest detection being observed for alkylphenol ethoxylates. Data from a new binational database on toxic OCs in sewage sludges suggest and reiterates the need for additional chemical monitoring in both countries, risk assessments for emerging OCs contained in sludges destined for application on land, and stronger enforcement of sludge disposal restrictions in China, where as much as 40% of sludge is currently being dumped improperly.

China's rapid growth of both population size and sanitation infrastructure have created a heightened need for responsible management of sewage sludge. We applied liquid chromatography in conjunction with isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry to measure multiple endocrine disrupting antimicrobials and their transformation products in 100 sewage sludge samples collected across 21 Chinese provinces/districts. Occurrences (detection frequencies) and concentrations (ng/g dry weight) were as follows: triclosan (99%;4-4870), triclocarban (95%;3-43,300), 2'-hydroxy-triclocarban (94%;1-2340), 3'-hydroxy-triclocarban (91%;1-1250), 3,3',4,4'-tetrachlorocarbanilide (100%; 22-580), dichlorocarbanilide (94%;2-23,890), monocarbanilide (92%;2-120), carbanilide (90%;3-1,340), and five parabens: methyl- (98%;2-630), ethyl- (96%;2-170), propyl- (99%;2-27), butyl- (89%;2-11) and benzyl-paraben (7%;2-12). The transformation products of triclocarban were measured for the first time in Chinese wastewater system, and ratios of transformation products to parental triclocarban indicate ongoing triclocarban dechlorination during wastewater treatment. Contaminant profiles and concentrations differed by region, treatment capacity, and wastewater type. Extrapolation of collected data yielded an estimate for the total mass of 13 analytes sequestered in Chinese sewage sludge of 68 t/y with an upper bound of 400 t/y. This China-wide survey established baseline levels of selected antimicrobials in sludges whose current disposal is performed with little regulatory oversight and enforcement.

Urban sustainability is the comprehensive manifestation of development structures and economic aggregates. The current sustainable evaluation of cities from a single aspect cannot comprehensively reflect urban sustainable development. Based on emergy, this study constructs an assessment method of urban sustainability from development structures and economic aggregates. Jiaxing is the case study explored as the sustainable development model of cities in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) of China. High sustainability of economic aggregates is found in Jiaxing, which is driven by the growth of green GDP. However, the urban development of Jiaxing primarily depends on the input of ecosystem resources, which hinders the sustainability of development structures within Jiaxing. These findings indicate that economic aggregates drive the development of Jiaxing and that the development structures within Jiaxing are unsustainable, resulting from the low sustainability of the natural subsystem and the economic subsystem. As such, it is proposed that industrial structures, development models, and management policies be adopted within cities in the YRD of China in order to promote sustainable development of cities in the YRD of China. This study, therefore, seeks to provide methodological guidance for urban sustainable evaluation.

Xiangjiang (XJ) is a typical urban inland river that serves as a drinking water source, which may be affected by the currently used organochlorine pesticides (CUOCPs) originating from agricultural activities in the vicinity. On this basis, this study comprehensively explored the occurrence and distribution characteristics of CUOCPs in surface water and sediments under long-term precipitation and subsequent floods. Considering the low concentration of CUOCPs in water, a technique combining high-throughput organic analysis with high-volume solid phase extraction (High-throat/Hi-volume SPE) was introduced for effective analysis of CUCOPs. The results showed that the concentration of CUOCPs in the water and sediments of XJ ranged from 2.33 to 6.40 ng L

In this study, we investigated the occurrence of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in the surface water and sediments of the Xiangjiang (XJ) River, a drinking water source of Changsha City. The total concentrations of five detected OPEs (Σ5OPEs) in surface water and tap water were 6.07-25.3 ng L-1 (average 14.9 ± 4.98 ng L-1), and 23.6 ng L-1, respectively, and four detected OPEs (Σ4OPEs) in sediments were 3.74-27.5 ng g-1 dw (average 12.1 ± 6.48 ng g-1 dw). Tris-2-chloroisopropyl phosphate (TCIPP) was the dominant contributor in water and sediment samples, accounting for over 40% of ΣOPEs. A particular flood event during July-August 2020 reduced the level of OPEs in river water, leading to generally uniform OPE concentrations in surface water and sediment samples from the upper, middle, and lower reaches of XJ. Principal component analysis-multiple linear regression (PCA-MLR) results indicated that the main sources of OPEs in the surface water and sediments of XJ were emissions of waste-water treatment plants and anthropocentric activities. The results of ecological and human health risk assessments indicated that all OPEs posed a low or negligible ecological risk for algae, daphnia, and fish, and negligible risk for human health. Interestingly, the concentration and human health risk of OPEs in a composite tap water sample was generally higher than those in river water samples, indicating possible OPE contamination from water treatment processes or transportation through pipe networks.

In this study, we reported the occurrence of eight organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) in the East China Sea. Forty samples were collected and analysed with a high volume solid phase extraction method (Hi-throat/Hi-volume SPE) in the early summer of 2020. All the target OPPs were detected in the surface water at one or more stations in the East China Sea, and the concentrations of ΣOPPs were in the range 0.0775–3.09 ng/L (mean: 0.862 ± 0.624 ng/L). Terbufos sulfone and fenthion were the main pollutants in this area, probably resulting from pesticide use in China and other countries. The off-shore input from coastal regions was suggested to be a major source of OPP pollution in the East China Sea, and the movement of ocean currents played an important role in their transportation because around 0.86 t OPPs passed through the Tsushima Strait from the East China Sea each month. An ecological risk assessment showed that these OPPs presented a high risk to species in the East China Sea, whereas they posed no health risk to humans under both the median and high exposure scenario.

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are typical industrial additives widely applied in various industrial and household products, but they may pollute drinking water. In the present study, the occurrence of OPEs in drinking water was analyzed. For this purpose, 25 drinking water samples were collected from households in 25 cities in China. The concentrations of OPEs were accurately determined according to a high-throughput organic analysis testing combined with high-volume solid phase extraction (Hi-throat/Hi-volume SPE) technique. Through this technique, nine OPEs were detected, with spiked recoveries from 77% to 101%, and their total concentrations (ΣOPEs) ranging from 46.8 to 251 (average 126) ng L−1. The detection frequencies of the selected OPEs determined via Hi-throat/Hi-volume SPE were 88.0%–100%, which are much higher than those previously reported. The limit of detections of the OPEs was low at 20 L). OPEs in drinking water presented a decreasing trend from cities in coastal provinces to inland cities of China. Redundancy analysis showed that the concentrations of OPEs in drinking water were significantly influenced by economic–demographic influencing factors. The non-carcinogenic and lifetime carcinogenic risks (non-CR and CR) of the analyzed OPEs in drinking water were negligible for urban residents in China.

Rapid urbanization created unique urban environment with a characteristic of dramatic modification of land cover, consequently causing profound perturbations in the transport and fate of pollutants in urban ecosystem. Taking a hyper-urbanization city (Shanghai) as an example to reveal the influence of urbanization development on pollutant footprint, this study reconstructed and compared historical evolutions of elemental carbon (EC) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) based on two lake sediment cores (DSL: Dianshan Lake; LXL: Luxun Lake) from early- and newly-urbanized areas, respectively. Historical fluxes of EC and total PAH (Σ16PAHs) showed similar and sharply fluctuant increases occurring after the 1950s in the DSL core later than the LXL core after the 1900s. In modern times (after 2000), the mean fluxes of EC and Σ16PAHs in the LXL core were 2.68- and 1.38-fold greater than those in the DSL core, respectively, indicating the stronger influence from more intensive human activities and longer industrial history in early urbanized area. Based on the significant correlations among socioeconomic factors with EC and Σ16PAH fluxes, the extended STIRPAT (stochastic impacts by regression on population, affluence and technology) models were successfully constructed, revealing that significance of these driving factors were in the order of population > the proportion of heavy industry > coal consumption > gross domestic product (GDP) per capita > vehicle amount. In general, the obvious discrepancy in historical stage and intensity of sedimentary EC and PAH accumulations implied that some newly fast-developing cities still have a chance to adjust urban development strategy to avoid more serious pollution.

With the recent restrictions of the use of high-toxic organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), other OCPs with possibly lower toxicities have become increasingly popular, herein referred to as the currently used organochlorine pesticides (CUOCPs). Drinking water is one of the most valuable resources for the preservation of life, and it is susceptible to pollution by CUOCPs. However, there are no existing data on the occurrence and human exposures to CUOCPs in drinking water, thus there are growing concerns over the potential health hazards of these undetected chemicals. In this study, an emerging high-throughput organic analysis testing combined with a high-volume solid-phase extraction technique was utilized to explore the potential presence and human exposures to the CUOCPs in two types of drinking water (namely, tap water (TW) and bottled water (BW)) samples from eight cities in the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration, China. The study overcomes the deficiencies of recent investigations on the trace/ultra-trace organic pollution of drinking water. The results reveal that the total concentrations of the eighteen target CUOCPs (Σ18CUOCPs) in the TW and BW samples were 2.68–11.7 ng L–1 (mean 6.11 ± 2.20 ng L–1) and 0.63–2.75 ng L–1 (mean 1.37 ± 0.64 ng L–1), respectively. The concentrations of most of the detected CUOCPs in BW were significantly lower than those in TW, indicating generally lower CUOCP pollution levels in BW. This is possibly related to the higher source-water quality and more advanced treatment processes for BW production. Meanwhile, the concentrations of the ΣCUOCPs in TW from the urban areas of the studied cities were generally higher than those from the suburban areas. This was mainly attributed to the concentrations of the dominant CUOCPs in TW, such as tetradifon and dichlobenil. However, with the rapid urbanization of the cities, the concentrations of other individual CUOCPs in TW showed no significant differences between the samples from the urban and suburban areas. Besides, the estimated daily intake of the CUOCPs from TW was approximately 0.5 ng (kg of body weight (bw))−1 d−1 for males and females, which is considerably higher than the corresponding approximate value for BW (∼0.1 ng (kg of bw)−1 d−1). Thus, the study revealed that the harmful exposure to CUOCPs was lower in BW than in TW.

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) have been found to be ubiquitously disseminated in the environment due to their widespread use in recent decades. In this study, the occurrence and spatiotemporal distribution of PFAAs in the surface water of Huangpu River, Shanghai, China were investigated from 2012 to 2014. The total concentration of 14 PFAAs (ΣPFAAs) ranged from 39.8 to 596.2 ng L −1 , with a mean value of 226.3 ng L −1 . Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) were dominant, with their mean concentrations of 139.6 and 46.5 ng L −1 , respectively. The concentration of ΣPFAAs increased greatly downstream especially in the lower reach of an industrial and urbanized area. Samples collected in different seasons were used to analyze the seasonal variation. The results showed that higher concentration of ΣPFAAs occurred in the wet season, especially downstream. Therefore, industrial discharges, municipal wastewater and surface runoff were identified as major potential sources. The annual discharge load of ΣPFAAs from Huangpu River to Yangtze River was estimated to be 2263.4 kg yr −1 . The hazard assessment suggested that the contamination of PFAAs in Huangpu River could pose risks to the aquatic environment and drinking water safety, which should draw more attention.

Nanoparticle (NP) assessment in sludge materials, although of growing importance in eco- and biotoxicity studies, is commonly overlooked and, at best, understudied. In the present study, sewage sludge samples from across the mega-city of Shanghai, China were investigated for the first time using a sequential extraction method coupled with single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SP-ICP-MS) to quantify the abundance of metal-containing NPs in the extraction fractions and transmission electron microscopy to specifically identify the nanophases present. In general, most sludges observed showed high concentrations of Cr, Cu, Cd, Ni, Zn, and Pb, exceeding the maximum permitted values in the national application standard of acid soil in China. NPs in these sludges contribute little to the volume and mass but account for about half of the total particle number. Based on electron microscopy techniques, various NPs were further identified, including Ti-, Fe-, Zn-, Sn-, and Pb-containing NPs. All NPs, ignored by traditional metal risk evaluation methods, were observed at a concentration of 10

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) raise public concern as emerging contaminants. The abundance and variation of 11 ARGs, intI1 and 16S rRNA gene were deciphered using quantitative PCR (qPCR) in two drinking water treatment systems that include river, wetland, drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and tap water from the Yangtze River Delta. The influencing factors for ARG abundance in river water were also explored. All investigated genes were detected in river water and there was no significant difference between the two systems, with sulfonamide ARGs occupying the highest abundance. Temperature had a significant effect on the ARG distribution based on permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA). Further Spearman analysis demonstrated that temperature was strongly correlated with the abundance of sul1, sul2, tetA and tetC, and these genes were significantly correlated with environmental factors (including temperature, total organic carbon (TOC) and dissolved oxygen (DO)). Considering the frequency and abundance of ARGs, as well as their correlation with other genes, sul1, sul2, tetA and tetC could be used as indicators of ARGs in river water. No significant reduction was noted for the absolute abundance of ARGs from river water to wetland water. Principle coordinates analysis (PCoA) combined with PERMANOVA revealed that drinking water treatment was responsible for reducing 16S rRNA gene and ARG abundance resulting in 3-log reductions. However, it should be noted that after transportation of distribution pipeline, both 16S rRNA gene and ARGs still detected in tap water, which indicated persistence of ARGs and will require further research.

Rapid industrialization and urbanization has caused large emission and potential contamination of mercury (Hg) in urban environment. However, little is known about the impact of socioeconomic factor on Hg accumulation in sediment. In the present study, historical record of anthropogenic Hg deposition of Shanghai was reconstructed by using three sediment cores from three park lakes (C1: Luxun Park; C2: Fuxing island Park; C3: Xinjiangwan Park). Meanwhile, the influence of socioeconomic factor to Hg emissions and sedimentary record was calculated based on an extended STIRPAT (stochastic impacts by regression on population, affluence and technology) model. The profiles of Hg levels and fluxes in the three sediment cores showed that Shanghai has recently undergone urbanization. The anthropogenic Hg fluxes exhibited fluctuant increases from ∼1900 to present and accelerated after the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 and the implementation of reform and opening up policy in 1978. The mean flux ratios of Hg in post-2000 were 2.2, 12, and 2.7 in the C1, C2 and C3 cores, respectively. The extended STIRPAT model was constructed based on strong positive relationships between socioeconomic factors and Hg fluxes, revealing that the proportion of coal consumption, the urbanization rate, and the proportion of heavy industry were the three most important driving factors for Hg accumulations in urban sediment of Shanghai.

Semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) are ubiquitous and toxic environmental pollutants, and have recently attracted much research attention. However, their occurrence in tapwater and the associated potential health risks have not been thoroughly studied. This work examined 26 household tapwater samples collected in 26 Chinese cities during August and September 2019. Concentrations of 79 SVOCs, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), and polychlorobenzenes (CBs), were determined using an emerging method of high throughput organic analysis testing combined with high volume solid phase extraction (Hi-throat/Hi-volume SPE). Total concentrations of PAHs, PCBs, OCPs, and CBs were in the ranges 8.70–103 ng L−1 (average 42.1 ng L−1), 61.6–434 pg L−1 (average 274 pg L−1), 13.1–266 pg L−1 (average 59.8 pg L−1), and 3.5–83.0 pg L−1 (average 13.8 pg L−1), respectively. PAHs were the dominant SVOCs, with concentrations 10–100 times those of PCBs, OCPs, and CBs. All the studied SVOCs had concentrations deemed acceptable by Chinese national tapwater standards. These measured SVOCs displayed little spatial variation across China, but were significantly correlated with the size of the economy and population of each city. The human non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks associated with the studied SVOCs in Chinese tapwater are negligible.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants, posing potentially serious threats to human health. This study analyzed compositional characteristics, sources, and carcinogenic risks of PAHs in the atmospheric gas phase at an urban site in Shanghai, East China. Seventy-four gas phase samples were collected during the warm months of May–October 2018 using a high-volume solid phase extraction (Hi-volume SPE) technique. The total concentration of sixteen priority PAHs (ΣPAHs) was in the range of 5.54–182.05 ng m−3 (average 34.47 ng m−3) and the total of seven carcinogenic PAHs (ΣCPAHs) was in range of 0.03–1.49 ng m−3 (average 0.48 ng m−3), accounting for 1.47% of ΣPAHs and indicating low carcinogenic potential. Redundancy analyses indicated positive correlations between ΣPAHs and air quality, and ΣCPAHs and average high temperature, and a negative correlation between ΣPAHs and wind speed. Four possible sources, namely petroleum and petrogenic sources, traffic emissions, coal combustion, and mixed gasoline and coal combustion sources, were identified by positive matrix factorization (PMF), accounting for 62.84%, 19.31%, 10.15%, and 7.69% of ΣPAHs, respectively. The overall lifetime lung cancer risk (LLCR) through inhalation of PAHs was estimated to be at a low risk level of 1.61 × 10−5. The LLCR based on PMF apportionment decreased in the order of mixed gasoline and coal combustion sources (47.07%) > traffic emissions (35.10%) > petroleum and petrogenic sources (11.06%) > coal combustion (6.74%). This study demonstrates the effectiveness of Hi-volume SPE in collecting and analyzing atmospheric gas phase PAHs.

This study evaluated the levels and spatial distribution of PBDEs in 9 typical offices in Shanghai, China through the sample analysis of air and settled dust (floor dust, desktop dust and dust in computer case). PBDEs in air ranged from 93 to 322 pg/m(3), while the PBDEs levels in dust varied from 247 to 3.3 × 10(4) ng/g. Spatial variability of PBDEs in office dust was evident and likely influenced by air exchange and the use of electronic devices. A significant positive linear correlation was observed between the power usage rate and PBDE levels in both office air (R(2) = 0.81) and settled dust (R(2) = 0.94). The PBDEs exposure via inhalation and dust ingestion were both analyzed to estimate the life-time cancer risk, which is 1.34 × 10(-22) to 7.16 × 10(-22), significantly lower than the threshold level (10(-6)). Non-cancer risk indicated by the hazard index (1) is also low in current exposure conditions.

Sewage sludge is regarded as one important sink for hydrophobic pollutants, including hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), but the current pollution situation of HBCD in sludge from China is unknown, despite that many studies have reported its occurrence in other environmental compartments across China. In this study, we collected 27 sludge samples from Shanghai to investigate the occurrence and distribution, to examine the diastereoisomer profile and sources, and to provide advice for future pollution control. HBCD is ubiquitous in sludge with a mean concentration of 4.7ngg(-1) dry weight (dw) (range: 0.10-37.2ngg(-1) dw), lower than data from European countries and the United States. Sludge from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) treating industrial wastewater contained high levels of HBCD. However, no significant relationships were found between HBCD and four parameters (total organic carbon, the percentage of industrial wastewater, capacity and sludge production of WWTPs). α- and γ-HBCD were two main components with the corresponding contributions of 47.9% and 48.0%. Comparing with the annual production of HBCD in China, its storage in sewage sludge is extremely low (less than 0.002%), indicating future release of HBCD from waste polystyrene foam will be significant, and careful considerations should be taken during waste disposal. To our knowledge, this is the first report on HBCD in sewage sludge from China.

To explore the influence of rapid urbanization development on the accumulation of 16 priority PAHs in urban environment, thirty-three surface sediments from city lakes in different urbanized areas of Shanghai were collected to evaluate the occurrence characteristic and source apportionment of PAHs. The concentrations of Σ16PAHs in lake surface sediments ranged from 55.7 to 4928 ng g−1 with a mean value of 1131 ng g−1 (standard deviation, 1228 ng g−1), of which 4-, 5- and 6-ring PAHs were the dominant components. Spatial distribution of PAHs in lake surface sediments showed a significantly declining trend along with a decreasing urbanization gradient (one-way ANOVA, p

The increasing levels of heavy metals in the environment generally related with the rapid industrialization and urbanization. Mercury (Hg) is a global toxin with wide concerns, and China gradually becomes the main producer, consumer, and emitter of Hg in the world. However, few historical data are available on the occurrence of Hg in Chinese urban areas. Here, we collected 35 lake surface sediment samples from 35 public parks and 1 sediment core in the Luxun Park in Shanghai, a hyper-urbanization city in China, to determine the spatial and vertical distributions of total mercury (THg) and methylmercury (MeHg) and to explore the Hg pollution history with the industrial development. Higher concentrations of Hg and MeHg and greater Hg enrichment were found in urban areas compared with suburban area with the following order: central urban core area > developed urban area > developing urban area > suburban area. The THg concentration in the sediment core showed an increasing trend from 1876 to 2000 and a decreasing trend from 2000 to 2012, coinciding with the process of industrialization and urbanization in Shanghai. However, THg fluxes unceasingly increased from 1876 to present probably attributed to coal consumption in the suburban area and transportation agglomeration in the central urban core area. Unlike THg, no significant variations for MeHg with time and the maximum value (0.17 μg/kg) appeared in 1947. The methylation ratio of MeHg to THg in the sediment is pretty low, and more studies are needed to further understand the fate of Hg in the environment.

Pharmaceuticals are heavily used to improve human and animal health, resulting in the frequent contamination of aquatic environments with pharmaceutical residues, which has raised considerable concern in recent years. When inadequately removed from drinking water in water treatment plants, pharmaceuticals can have potential toxic effects on human health. This study investigated the spatial distributions and seasonal variations of five pharmaceuticals, including ibuprofen (IBP), ketoprofen (KEP), naproxen (NPX), diclofenac (DFC), and clofibric acid (CA), in the Huangpu River system (a drinking water source for Shanghai) over a period of almost two years as well as the associated risk to human health for different age groups. All of the targets were ubiquitous in the river water, with levels decreasing in the following order: KEP (mean: 28.6 ng/L)≈IBP (23.3 ng/L)>DFC (13.6 ng/L)≈NPX (12.3 ng/L)>CA (1.6ng/L). The concentrations of all of the investigated compounds were at the low or medium end of the global range. The upstream tributaries contained lower IBP but higher NPX than did the mainstream and downstream tributaries. However, no significant variations were found in the levels of KEP, DFC, or CA at the different sampling sites. Except for CA in the mainstream, significantly higher pharmaceutical levels were observed in the dry season than in the wet season. Overall, a very low risk of the selected pharmaceuticals for human health via drinking water was observed, but future studies are needed to examine the fate and chronic effects of all pharmaceuticals in aquatic environments. To our knowledge, this is the first report to investigate the human health risk of pharmaceuticals in raw drinking water in China.

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are considered an important medium for the transport and transformation of organic pollutants, such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and dechlorane plus (DP). However, limited data on PBDEs and no data on DP were available regarding wastewater and sludge from China, especially in Shanghai, one of the most developed cities in China. This study examined the occurrence of PBDEs and DP in a conventional WWTP in Shanghai for one year. The levels of the total PBDEs in the influent and dewatered sludge ranged from 5.31 to 27.9 ng/L and 31.0 to 99.5 ng/g, respectively, which were at the low end of the global range. DP was reported in wastewater with a mean concentration of 0.46 ng/L (range: 0.05 to 1.40 ng/L) and sludge contained DP in the range of 1.1 to 2.0 ng/g. For both PBDEs and DP, there were no significant seasonal variations observed in the four seasons. Indoor dust and outdoor air could be two main sources of PBDEs and DP in the WWTP. In both the influent and sewage sludge, BDE-209 was the most abundant congener, with contributions to the total PBDE levels ranging from 52.9 to 82.6% and 82.7 to 84.0%, respectively. The fraction of anti-DP was consistently higher than that of syn-DP, and the average of fsyn ranged from 0.16 to 0.33, which fell in the range of two commercial DP mixtures. The annual releases of PBDEs and DP via sewage sludge from WWTPs in Shanghai were estimated to be 6,370 g and 164.8 g, respectively. The fate and risk of these compounds after being released into the environment require further research. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to report on the occurrence of DP in wastewater.

Sewage-based epidemiology was applied for the first time to a number of mainland Chinese megacities. The application monitored influents to 9 sewage treatment plants (STPs) to estimate the use of illicit drugs in Beijing, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and Shanghai. Altogether, 11.4 million inhabitants were covered during September-October 2012.24-h composite raw sewage samples were collected for 4 consecutive days at each STP. Each collected sample was analyzed for cocaine, benzoylecgonine, ecgonine methylester, methadone, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethy1-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine, 6-monoacetylmorphine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, ecstasy, mephedrone, methylenedioxypyrovalerone, 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, ketamine, and norketamine. Through the analysis of these chemical residues, the use of amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine, ecstasy, heroin, mephedrone, methadone, methamphetamine, methylenedioxypyrovalerone and ketamine among Chinese urban inhabitants was monitored. The results obtained demonstrated in a quantitative way that the drug use patterns of Chinese are different from their European counterparts. Abuse of methamphetamine and ketamine was particularly noteworthy in China, while consumption of cocaine and ecstasy, the most popular drugs in Europe, was very low among the sampled Chinese inhabitants. Further, the use of most drugs demonstrated a geographical trend, since their use was much higher in the southern cities of Shenzhen and Guangzhou than it was in Beijing and Shanghai. Interestingly, the exclusive, but minor, metabolite of heroin, 6-monoacetylmorphine, was detected only sporadically. This would suggest that the use of heroin among Chinese urban users sampled in the study was low. Further, the patterns of drug use observed during the study are largely consistent with trends reported by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Overall, our study suggests that sewage-based epidemiology can readily be used to monitor the use of illicit drugs in those countries/regions where traditional means to monitor drug use patterns have only yielded limited or information of questionable reliability. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Aquaculture is a booming industry in the world and China is the largest producer and exporter of aquatic products. To prevent and treat diseases occurred in aquaculture, antibiotics are widely applied. However, the information of antibiotics used in Chinese aquaculture is still limited. Based on peer-reviewed papers, documents, reports, and even farmer surveys, this review summarized antibiotics used in Chinese aquaculture. In 2014, more than 47.4 million tonnes of farmed aquatic products were produced in mainland China. The outputs in the east and south parts of China can reach as much as 600 times higher than those in the northwest areas, which is clearly separated by the "Hu Line" - a line that marks a striking difference in the distribution of population. A total of 20 antibiotics belonging to eight categories have been reported for use, mainly via oral administration. However, only 13 antibiotics have been authorized for application in Chinese aquaculture and 12 antibiotics used are not authorized. Totally, 234 cases on antibiotic residues in Chinese aquatic products were recorded, including 24 fish species, eight crustacean species, and four mollusk species. Thirty-two antibiotics have been detected in aquatic products; quinolones and sulfonamides were the dominated residual chemicals. For specific compound, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, and sulfisoxazole have the highest concentrations. Except for a few cases, all residual concentrations were lower than the maximum residue limits. Through the consumption of aquatic products tainted by antibiotics, humans may acquire adverse drug reactions or antibiotic-resistant bacteria. However, the risk of antimicrobial resistance in human body, when exposed to antibiotics at sub-inhibitory concentrations, has not been exhaustively considered in the risk assessment. In addition, a national comprehensive investigation on the amount of antibiotics used in Chinese aquaculture is still needed in future studies.

Aquaculture in mangrove wetlands has been developed rapidly, causing various environmental problems (e.g., antibiotic residue). In the present study, the levels and distributions of a well-known class of antibiotics (fluoroquinolones; FQs), including norfloxacin (NOR), ciprofloxacin (CIP), and enrofloxacin (ENR), were examined in sediment and mangrove plant (Aegiceras corniculatum) from a mangrove wetland in the Zhanjiang Mangrove National Nature Reserve, South China. NOR and CIP were detected in all sediment samples, with concentrations ranging from 4.3 to 64.2 ng/g and from 7.62 to 68.5 ng/g on a basis of dry weight (dw), respectively, whereas ENR was found with relatively lower frequency (

The concentration and spatial distribution of persistent toxic substances (PTS) in the river sediment in Chaohu City, China were investigated. A total of nine surface sediments were collected and the selected PTS pollutants including six heavy metals and nineteen polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were analyzed. The mean heavy metal concentrations (in mg/kg, dry weight) ranged within 0.18–1.53 (Hg), 50.08–200.18 (Cu), 118.70–313.65 (Zn), 50.77–310.85 (Cr), 37.12–92.72 (Pb) and 13.29–197.24 (As), and Cu, Zn and As have been regarded as the main metal pollutants. The levels of PBDEs (1.2–12.1 ng/g) and BDE-209 (2.4–30.5 ng/g) were at the middle level of the global range. BDE-209 was the predominant congener (67.0%–85.7%), which agrees with the fact that technical deca-BDE mixtures are the dominant PBDE formulation in China. The relative high level of PTS pollutants in the western part of the city is probably owing to the intensive agricultural activities and lack of sewerage system there. The ecological risk assessment with the sediment quality guidelines (SOGs) indicates that the urban river sediments in the city have been heavily contaminated by heavy metals with probable ecotoxicological impacts on freshwater organisms and the main toxic pollutants are Hg and As. The results of current study imply that the city, and perhaps many other small cities in China as well, requires immediate pollution control measures with emphasis on not only conventional organic pollutants but also on PTS such as heavy metals and PBDEs.

The occurrence, behavior, and release of five acidic pharmaceuticals, including ibuprofen (IBP), naproxen (NPX), ketoprofen (KEP), diclofenac (DFC), and clofibric acid (CA), have been investigated along the different units in a tertiary-level domestic wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in hyper-urbanization city of China (Shanghai). IBP was the most abundant chemicals among the measured in raw wastewater. The loads of the acidic pharmaceuticals in the WWTP influent ranged from 7.5 to 414 mg/day/1,000 inh, which were lower than those reported in the developed countries suggesting a less per capita consumption of pharmaceuticals in Shanghai. IBP obtained by highest removal (87 %); NPX and KEP were also significantly removed (69-76 %). However, DFC and CA were only moderately removed by 37-53 %, respectively. Biodegradation seemed to play a key role in the elimination of the studied pharmaceuticals except for DFC and CA. An annual release of acidic pharmaceuticals was estimated at 1,499 and 61.7 kg/year through wastewater and sludge, respectively, from Shanghai. Highest pharmaceuticals concentrations were detected in the effluent discharge point of the WWTP, indicating that WWTP effluent is the main source of the acidic pharmaceuticals to its receiving river. Preliminary results indicated that only DFC in river had a high risk to aquatic organisms. Nevertheless, the joint toxicity effects of these chemicals are needed to further investigate.

Levels of hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) were determined in 12 consumer fish species from South China. The concentrations of the sum of HBCD diastereoisomers (ΣHBCD) ranged from nondetectable to 194 pg/g wet weight, with a detectable frequency of 70%. This was at the low end of the concentration range globally observed. Carnivorous fish species contained higher HBCD concentrations than herbivorous and detritivorous ones, suggesting the potential for biomagnification of HBCDs via the trophic chain. Moreover, ΣHBCD concentrations were higher in both freshwater and seawater farmed fish than in wild marine fish, indicating that human activities were probably an important input source of HBCD in aquaculture. Among the three diastereoisomers, α-HBCD dominated in most samples, with a mean relative abundance of 70%. In agreement with previous studies, a difference in the diastereomer patterns was observed from commercial products and several environmental media to biota samples. For farm-raised snubnose pompano, the concentrations of ΣHBCD were moderately linearly correlated with lipid contents but were not significantly correlated with fish body lengths and weights. In the worst-case exposure, the mean estimated daily intake of ΣHBCD via fish consumption for residents of South China ranged from 13 to 16 pg/kg body weight/d for various age groups, much lower than its lowest observed adverse effect level derived from a two-generation reproductive toxicity study on rats. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2012; 31: 1424–1430. © 2012 SETAC

Ideally, agricultural use is a treatment for the sewage sludge generated from municipal wastewater. However, this treatment probably causes ecological risks due to the occurrence of organic contaminants in sludge, which has attracted rising concerns recently. To assess the possible ecological risk, in this study, sewage sludge samples were collected from 28 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Shanghai, China for exploring the level and profile of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). The mean concentration of Σ18PBDE (sum of all target analytes except for BDE-209) was at the low end of global range. However, we found the highest reported BDE-209 levels (34,900 ng g(-1) dw) in sewage sludge/biosoilds to date. The annual mass loadings of penta-BDE, octa-BDE, and deca-BDE were 3.6, 0.6, and 763 kg through sludge, respectively. Following sludge application in agricultural land, the concentrations of penta-BDE, octa-BDE, and deca-BDE in soil were 0.19, 0.03, and 39.5 ng g(-1), respectively. Preliminary results indicate that the ecological risk of soil in organisms exposed to PBDEs was relatively low. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to explore the fate of PBDEs in sewage sludge due to no restriction on the usage and production of PBDEs products in China currently.

Hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) is a concern due to their large usage combining with physico-chemical properties and toxicity to wildlife and human. However, very limited data were reported on HBCDs in soils, especially from rural area. In this study, 22 soil samples were collected from Chongming Island at estuary of the Yangtze River Delta, to investigate the level, diasteroisomer profile, potential sources, and mass inventory of HBCDs. The total concentrations ranged from not detected to 93.8 pg g −1 dry weight (dw) with a mean of 23.3 pg g −1 dw, which was at the low end of the global levels. The wide distribution of HBCDs in soils suggested that the local emissions of HBCD-containing materials and/or the inputs via atmospheric transport from other regions were two possible sources. Variation of HBCDs levels was observed in different types of soils. Woodland, tideland and road soils contained slightly higher HBCDs than those of farmland and grassland. Overall, γ-HBCD was the dominant diasteroisomer in soils, followed by α-HBCD and β-HBCD. Significant but weak correlations were only found between α-HBCD and β-HBCD versus TOC content in soils. Currently, the mass inventory of HBCDs in soils of Chongming Island was 5.3 kg. Based on these data, we gave perspective on human intake of HBCDs via soil ingestion by age. Local resident’s intakes ranged from 15.5 to 97.8 fg kg body weight −1 d −1 , in which children are exposed more than adults.

Despite the importance of chiral organochlorine pesticide enantiomers in terms of environmental effects, no relevant data have been acquired in consumer fish. The present study determined the residual levels and enantiomer fractions (EFs) of α-HCH, o,p'-DDT, and o,p'-DDD in 11 consumer fish species from South China, including 6 freshwater farmed fish, 3 seawater farmed fish, and 2 wild marine fish. The mean concentrations of α-HCH, o,p'-DDT, and o,p'-DDD were 0.27, 4.4, and 3.5 ng/g wet, respectively, in all fish samples measured (n = 125). The EFs of α-HCH varied widely, from below the racemic EF of 0.5 to above it. For o,p'-DDT, the (+)-enantiomer dominated in all fish species. On the other hand, all EFs of o,p'-DDD, a metabolite of o,p'-DDT, were below 0.5, suggesting the (-)-enantiomer was preferentially enriched in fish. In addition, all three target analytes showed species dependence of EFs, consistent with results from other previous studies. Moreover, no significant correlations were found between the EFs and concentrations of α-HCH, o,p'-DDT, and o,p'-DDD in red drum, snubnose pompano, and crimson snapper, with the exception of o,p'-DDD in snubnose pompano, in which weak correlations were detected. Nevertheless, more studies are needed to explore the residual levels and toxicity of chiral contaminants in consumer fish or other foodstuff to further develop the human risk assessment framework based on chiral signatures.

Fish tissues from different fishery types (freshwater farmed, seawater farmed and seawater wild) were analyzed for organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), with the aim to further our understanding of bioaccumulation, and reflect the state of different fishery environments. Significantly higher SigmaOCP levels were found in seawater farmed fish than others, and among three freshwater farmed species, the lowest levels occurred in filter-feeding fish (bighead carp). Liver contained the highest SigmaOCP levels, while no significant differences were found among other tissues. Among DDT components, p,p'-DDT was abundant in seawater fish, while for freshwater fish, p,p'-DDE was the predominant congeners, except for northern snakehead (34% for p,p'-DDE and 30% for p,p'-DDT). The new source of DDTs to freshwater fish ponds was partly attributed to dicofol, whereas sewage discharged from the Pearl River Delta and anti-fouling paint were likely the DDTs sources to seawater farmed fish.

Concentrations of persistent halogenated hydrocarbons (PHHs) were determined in 13 consumer fish species (a total of 390 individuals) collected from a major fish-farming region of China. The potential health risks of PHHs associated with consumption of fish from China was also systematically assessed regionally and globally. In all fish samples, DDTs, HCHs, PCBs, and PBDEs were the predominant PHH residues, with the median levels (ranges) being 6.0 (0.14-698.9), 0.50 (0.13-24.06), 0.10 (< 0.02-7.65), and 0.15 (< 0.0012-3.85) ng/g wet weight, respectively. The upper-bound (90th percentile) values of estimated daily intakes of DDT, HCHs, PCBs, and PBDEs via fish consumption were 45.5, 1.35, 0.46, and 0.30 ng/kg bw/d (urban), and 15.9, 0.47, 0.16, and 0.10 ng/kg bw/d (rural). Globally, the upper-bound outflows via fishery exportation of DDT, HCHs, PCBs, and PBDEs were 185, 5.51, 1.86, and 1.22 kg, respectively, in 2005. Japan was the largest recipient of PHHs, followed by Korea and the United States. Fish consumption assessments indicated that consumption of freshwater farmed and wild marine fish generally does not subject consumers to significant health risk as far as PHHs are concerned, while limited consumption of seawater farmed fish is advised.

Environmental risks of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sewage sludge are assessed based on the concentration by exhaustive extraction, which is a likely overestimation of the pool available to exposed organisms. This study evaluated the bioaccessibility of PBDEs in sewage sludge from Shanghai using a 3-compartment model and a 6-d Tenax extraction. The very slowly fraction contributed 56-88% of total PBDEs in spiked sludge, whereas the rapidly desorbing fraction contributed only 1.1-10%. For the same PBDE congener, the rapidly desorbing fractions for sewage sludge measured in the present study were lower than those for sediment. The bioaccessible concentrations of PBDEs were 2.3-56 ng/g dry weight in sewage sludge from Shanghai, which represented 5.2% of the concentration determined by exhaustive (Soxhlet) extraction. BDE-209 was the predominant congener in sludge, contributing to 63% of the total. Moreover, the Ratio between 6-h Tenax and Soxhlet concentrations (T/S Ratio, indicating bioaccessibility) was lower in sludge generated from industrial wastewater treatment compared to sludge from facilities that treated mostly domestic wastewater. The T/S Ratio of PBDE congeners was related to KOW, specifically as KOW increases, the T/S Ratio decreased. These results will improve understanding of the fate and potential toxicity of PBDEs during land and/or landfill application of sewage sludge.

To evaluate risk via inhalation exposure of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in office environment, thirty-six pairs air samples including PM2.5 (particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm), PM10 (particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 μm), total suspended particles (TSP) with matching gas phase were collected in office environment in Shanghai, China. The average concentrations of PM2.5, PM10 and TSP were 20.4, 27.2 and 50.3 μg/m3, respectively. Σ15PBDEs mean concentrations in PM2.5, PM10, TSP and gas phase were 51.8, 110.7, 148 and 59.6 pg/m3, respectively. Much more PBDEs distributed in fine fractions than coarse ones. PBDEs congener profiles found in PM2.5, PM10 and TSP (dominated by BDE-209) were different from that in gas phase (dominated by the tri- to penta-BDEs). Approximately 3.20 pg/kg/d PM2.5 bound PBDEs can be inhaled into the lung; 3.62 pg/kg/d PM10-PM2.5(particles with aerodynamic diameter of 2.5-10 μm) bound PBDEs tended to be deposited in the upper part of respiratory system, and the intake of PBDEs via gas-phase was 2.74 pg/kg/d. The exposure of PBDEs was far below the minimal risk levels (MRLs), indicating lower risk from PBDEs via inhalation in the studied office in Shanghai.

ObjectiveTo examine the age and sex-specific associations of urine levels of six mono-phthalates with body size and fat distribution in Chinese children at puberty.Materials and methodsFour hundred and ninety-three school-aged children (247 boys, 246 girls) were recruited. Obesity related anthropometric indices were measured and body fat proportion (BF%) was calculated. Spot urine samples were collected and phthalate monoesters were detected by an API 2000 electrospray triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (ESI-MS/MS). Associations between phthalate exposure and overweight/obesity measures and their trends were examined by multiple linear regression and Logistic regression analyses, respectively.ResultsDi-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) metabolites and monobutyl phthalate (MBP) were found to be the most detectable chemicals. In 8-10 years (yrs) group, concentrations of MEHP and MBP were significantly higher in girls than those in boys. However, concentrations of all phthalate monoesters, except for MEP and MEHP, in 11-13 yrs boys were significantly higher than those in girls. After adjusting for confounders including puberty onset, urinary concentrations of MBP and sum of low molecular-weight phthalate metabolites (∑LMP) were positively associated with boys' obesity in a concentration-effect manner, while concentrations of MEHP, MEHHP and sum of DEHP metabolites (∑MEHP) were negatively associated with girls' obesity. Associations between phthalate exposure levels and BMI z-score changes were age- and sex-specific in school-age children.ConclusionThere are age and sex-specific concentration-effect associations between phthalate exposure and fat distribution in Chinese children. Urinary phthalate levels in 11-13 yrs boys were about 30 percent higher than those in girls, and ∑MEHP levels in younger boys (10 yrs). Associations were positive for MBP and ∑LMP with both BMI z-score and fat distribution in boys >10 years of age, and negative for ∑MEHP with fat distribution in girls

According to the local habit of eating fish, in a total of 68 samples, 8 kinds of different trophic levels of edible fish collected in Shanghai were determined in terms of concentration and distribution profile of short chain chlorinated paraffin (SCCPs) in muscles to investigate the pollution status of SCCPs in edible fish from the Yangtze River Delta region. The results indicated that the concentrations (dw) of SCCPs in edible fish were in the range of 36-801 ng x g(-1). With the increase in carbon chain length, the concentration of SCCPs decreased. In addition, lower chlorinated (Cl6-Cl8) and shorter chain (Cl10, C11) congeners were the dominant chlorine and carbon homologues groups, respectively, contributing a total relative abundance of 61.46%-82.50% to the total abundance of SCCPs. The levels of SCCPs in fish of Shanghai were in the medium level worldwide, and the distribution pattern was in line with those of the domestic and foreign studies.

Rapid urbanization has caused potential pollution of heavy metal in Shanghai. A comprehensive pollution study of heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn) in 35 lake surface sediments from city parks in the four different urbanized areas of Shanghai was conducted. Intensive human activities caused moderate enrichment of the four metals in highly urbanized areas, especially Cd with the significant enrichment in the central urban core area. However, the levels of the four metals in all the sediments were lower than the corresponding consensus-based Probable Effect Concentration, indicating adverse effects not to occur frequently. The integrated pollution assessments of multiple heavy metals also suggested low ecological risk and 15-29 percent probability of toxicity in most of sediments. The metal speciation analysis showed that Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn were dominated by the non-residual fractions and thus they have high mobility and bioavailability, indicating significant anthropogenic sources. According to the Risk Assessment Code, Cd had the highest bioavailable fraction and represented high or very high risk, followed by Zn with medium or high risks in most of samples, while no or low risk was found for Cu and Pb at most sites because they were dominated by reducible and residual fractions. Correlation analysis showed that chemical fractions of heavy metals were prone to transform among each other if environmental conditions changed. Therefore, in view of anthropogenic inputs and speciation distribution, heavy metals with very high bioavailability at very low total levels and those with low bioavailability at very high total levels should not be ignored.

The wide production and use of phthalate esters (PAEs) in both industry and commercial products lead to their ubiquitous existence in the environment. However, understanding flow and pathway of human exposure to PAEs from sources to receptors is necessary and challenging. In this study, we selected final sewage sludge, an inevitable byproduct of wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), as one type of important carrier/sources of PAEs to clarify the flow of PAEs between human and the environment, e.g. the release by human to sludge and in turn ingestion by human after these sludges were disposed as soil amendment. Twenty-five sludge samples were collected from 25 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Shanghai, East China. Of all 16 PAE congeners, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and dibutyl phthalate (DnBP) were predominant with mean concentrations of 97.4 and 22.4 μg/g dw, respectively, both locating at the high end of the global range. WWTP treating industrial waster generally contained higher PAEs compared to those treating domestic wastewater, but no positive relationship was found between PAE levels with the percentage of industrial wastewater. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that similar PAE sources for all WWTPs in Shanghai with three exceptions, in which specific PAE products were made. The annual mass loadings via sludge of DEHP, DnBP, and Σ 16 PAEs were 31.4, 7.44, and 39.6 tons in Shanghai and 1042, 247, and 1314 tons in China, respectively, only accounting for 0.09% of the total consumption of PAEs in China. If this sludge is applied in soil, human will take 16.4 and 3.8 μg/kg bw for DEHP and DnBP every day, respectively, via dietary and soil ingestion, which were lower than the toxicological safety parameters. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to analyze the flow of sludge-borne PAEs from human release to human intake.

Five PPCPs, including clofibric acid (CA), diclofenac (DFC), ibuprofen (IBP), ketoprofen (KEP), and naproxen (NPX) were selected as target compounds to investigate their occurrence and removal efficiency in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) of Shanghai. Furthermore, their distribution and potential toxicological risk in the WWTP receiving river water were investigated. The results showed that all targets were detected in WWTP influent, suggesting that domestic sewage discharge is an important source of PPCPs to the WWTP. Lower removal efficiency of these PPCPs was found in the WWTP and the main mechanism of elimination was biodegradation. The pattern of five selected PPCPs in the river was similar to that in WWTP effluent, indicating that WWTP effluent was a main source of PPCPs to the receiving water. Risk assessment showed that diclofenac posed a high risk, while ketoprofen, naproxen, clofibric acid and ibuprofen showed low risks to biota in the receiving river.

There is a growing concern about the potential health effects of exposure to various environmental chemicals during pregnancy and infancy. The placenta is expected to be an effective barrier protecting the developing embryo against some endocrine disruptors (EDs) circulating in maternal blood. The current study was designed to assess in utero exposure levels of non-persistent organic pollutants (non-POPs) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Chinese newborns and potential role of placenta barrier against fetal exposure to these commonly-used environmental endocrine disruptors. A total of 230 newborn-mother pairs were enrolled during 2010–2011, 201 pairs of which were recruited from Shanghai, and the other 29 pairs came from Wenzhou. Maternal blood, cord blood, and meconium specimens were collected in the subject population from Shanghai and analyzed for non-POPs, including mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP), octylphenol (OP) and 4-nonylphenol (4-NP). A total of 19 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) congeners, which belong to POPs, were detected in maternal and cord blood specimens from the other 29 pairs. Fetal-maternal ratios (F-M ratios) and regression coefficients were presented to assess potential function of placenta on barricading the mother/fetal transfer of these EDs. Concentrations of the detected non-POPs in cord blood samples were approximately 20% lower than those in maternal blood, and regression coefficients of which were all over 0.80. In contrast, PBDEs levels in cord blood samples were significantly higher than those in maternal blood. MEHP levels in meconium were much higher than those in cord blood samples, and highly correlated. Therefore, observations demonstrated that the placental barrier slightly decreased the fetal exposure to most non-POPs, while PBDEs seemed to be totally transferred across the placenta and finally reached the fetus. For in utero exposure assessment of Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), MEHP level in meconium may be a useful biomarker.

Very few data for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were available in the electronic waste (e-waste) as one of the most PBDEs emission source. This study reported concentrations of PBDEs in e-waste including printer, rice cooker, computer monitor, TV, electric iron and water dispenser, as well as dust from e-waste, e-waste dismantling workshop and surface soil from inside and outside of an e-waste recycling plant in Shanghai, Eastern China. The results showed that PBDEs were detected in the majority of e-waste, and the concentrations of ΣPBDEs ranged from not detected to 175 g/kg, with a mean value of 10.8 g/kg. PBDEs were found in TVs made in China after 1990. The mean concentrations of ΣPBDEs in e-waste made in Korea, Japan, Singapore and China were 1.84 g/kg, 20.5 g/kg, 0.91 g/kg, 4.48 g/kg, respectively. The levels of ΣPBDEs in e-waste made in Japan far exceed the threshold limit of RoHS (1.00 g/kg). BDE-209 dominated in e-waste, accounting for over 93%. The compositional patterns of PBDEs congeners resembled the profile of Saytex 102E, indicating the source of deca-BDE. Among the samples of dust and surface soil from a typical e-waste recycling site, the highest concentrations of Σ18PBDEs and BDE-209 were found in dust in e-waste, ranging from 1960 to 340,710 ng/g and from 910 to 320,400 ng/g, which were 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than other samples. It suggested that PBDEs released from e-waste via dust, and then transferred to surrounding environment.

The concentrations of 19 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) congeners in a conventional wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) were determined to investigate the occurrence and fate of PBDEs during wastewater treatment processes. The level of total PBDEs ranged from 1.68 to 4.64 ng/L in wastewater, with BDE209 accounting for the largest proportion, followed by penta- and octa-BDE congeners. PBDEs were found to mainly exist in the particulate phase of wastewater, which rendered sedimentation efficient for the removal of PBDEs, while the removal efficiencies might be varied for congeners with different Br atom numbers. Because of similar congener profiles, in-house dust was considered to be an important source for PBDEs in the WWTP. According to the mass loading estimation, over 60% of total PBDEs entering the WWTP accumulated in the dewatered sludge, resulting in the total PBDE release of 43.8 kg/year via sewage sludge in Shanghai. And the annual release via effluent was estimated to be 5.5 kg, less but shouldn't be neglected.

Perfluorinated acids (PFAs) are the subject of increasingly intense environmental research. In this study, sewage sludge samples were collected from 25 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Shanghai, China to evaluate the levels and profile of C3-C14 PFAs. The results showed a ubiquitous PFAs contamination of sewage sludge in Shanghai with the total PFAs (∑PFAs) range of 126-809 ng g(-1)dw. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was found to be the dominant PFA pollutant and its concentration ranged from 23.2 to 298 ng g(-1)dw, much higher than the levels in other countries. Moreover, concentrations of short-chain PFAs (C6) in sewage sludge were considerable. Following sludge application in agricultural land, the concentrations of PFOA, and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) are predicted to be 1.08 and 7.53 ng g(-1)dw, respectively, much lower than the corresponding US EPA standards. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to explore the fate of PFAs in sludge-amended soils due to the persistence and bioaccumulation potential of these compounds.

Numerous studies have demonstrated the important role played by indoor dust in human exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), particularly in children, who spend most of their time indoors. Few data have been available for PBDEs in house dust in China. In this study, dust samples were collected randomly from 46 houses in Guangzhou, South China, for the first time to investigate levels and pattern profiles of PBDEs and to estimate human exposure to PBDEs for adults and toddlers (6 months to 2 years old). Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in selected ion monitoring mode, congeners--including BDE28, 47, 66, 85, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, and 209--were determined. The results show that BDE209 is the predominant congener in house dust, comprising 90.7% to 99.8% (mean 97.4%) of the total concentration. Of ∑tri-hepta BDEs, BDE47, 99, and 183 were the most abundant congeners, with mean contributions of 23.3%, 25.2%, and 21.9%, respectively. The intake of ∑tri-hepta BDEs via dust ingestion was 0.16-3.82 ng/d for adults and 2.1-7.64 ng/d for toddlers, accounting for 0.65% to 13.6% and 18.6% to 45.5%, respectively, of the total (based on data in our previous work) (Chen et al. 2008). With respect to intake of BDE209, the values increased to 11 to 264 ng/d for adults and to 145 to 527 ng/d for toddlers. Risk assessment indicated that PBDEs may possibly affect the health of toddlers in Guangzhou, South China. Further studies are needed to investigate the bioavailability and metabolism of PBDEs in humans to improve risk evaluation.

Very few data for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were available in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD), one of the most developed and urbanized region in China. In this study, Chongming Island, located at the estuary of the Yangtze River, was selected as background area to investigate the occurrence, sources, and inventory of PBDEs.Forty-two PBDE congeners were determined in surface soils from farmland, woodland, grassland, tideland, and road collected in Chongming Island.The mean concentrations of Sigma26PBDE (not including BDE-209) and BDE-209 in soils were 0.76 and 12 ng/g dry weight, respectively. BDE-209 contributed more than 90% of the total of 27 frequently detected BDE congeners, followed by BDE-99 and BDE-47. Weak correlations were found between total organic carbon content and PBDE congeners concentrations in surface soils. PBDE levels varied with land use. Farmland and woodland soils contained higher Sigma26PBDE concentrations. BDE-209 levels were the highest in road soils. The mass inventories of PBDEs in soils of Chongming Island were estimated at 3.1 and 310 kg for Sigma26PBDEs and BDE-209, respectively.The PBDE levels in Chongming Island were similar to those in European background soils, suggesting minimum influence of pollutants from the YRD via air, and wastewater inputs or few PBDE products were used herein. From the standpoint of eco-inland, more studies are needed to explore the reasons of PBDE difference by land use and to assess people intake PBDEs via agriculture products consumption in this region.

1-Chloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethene (p,p'-DDMU), a metabolite of either 1,1-dichloro-22-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (p,p'-DDD) or 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethene (p,p'-DDE), which is degraded from 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (p,p'-DDT), was detected in a variety of environmental matrices of the Pearl River Delta (PRD), South China, including fish, fish feeds, semidigested fish stomach contents, marine surface sediment, surface soil, atmospheric gaseous phase, and particulates, rainwater, and coastal rainwater. Forfish species,the concentrations of p,p'-DDMU were significantly higher in farmed fish than in marine wild fish, with the highest value obtained in seawater farmed fish species (mear/median values of 262/173 ng/g lipid). The relative abundance of p,p'-DDMU to total DDTs (sum of o,p'- and p,p'-DDT, DDD, and DDE) was higher in samples of marine origin (approximately 5%) than in those of terrestrial origin (approximately 2%). Because p,p'-DDD was considerably abundant in all samples and a negative linear correlation was found between p,p'-DDD/(p,p'-DDD + p,p'-DDE) and p,p'-DDMU/DDTs in the marine sediments (r2 = 0.73) and seawater farmed fish (r2 = 0.29) under investigation, it is possible that DDMU was partially dehydrochlorinated from DDD in the environment of the PRD. A fugacity-based assessment suggested that p,p'-DDMU is likely to transport from sediment to seawater and then to air and from soilto air. The ubiquity of p,p'-DDMU in the PRD indicates that it may also be widespread worldwide particularly in countries with large amounts of DDT used currently and/or historically. Given the potential risk of p,p'-DDMU to human health, more efforts should be directed toward to this previously overlooked contaminant

Seafood consumption is an important route of human exposure to organic contaminants. Residual levels of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), including DDTs, hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), heptachlor, aldrin, alpha-endosulfan, beta-endosulfan, dieldrin, endrin, endrin aldehyde, endrin ketone, methoxychlor, endosulfan sulfate, and heptachlor epoxide, were determined in a wide variety of seafood products collected from 11 coastal cities in southern China in June and October 2005. The results indicated that OCPs were predominated by DDTs and HCHs. The concentrations of other OCP components generally were low and were detectable in a small number of seafood samples only, probably reflective of the generally low levels of these OCPs in the study region and low bioaccumulation potentials in the species under investigation. Risk assessment against various standards clearly showed that seafood products were highly contaminated by DDTs and may pose health threat to local residents and the consumers all over the world. Furthermore, other OCP components, such as dieldrin and heptachlor, also impose lifetime cancer risk, especially to residents of coastal regions who often consume more seafood than those living inland. Therefore, continual monitoring of OCPs in various environment compartments, including biota and abiota, urgently is needed to mitigate effectively the impact of OCPs, particularly DDTs, on human health and the ecological environment.

Fish tissues from three different farming types (freshwater farmed, seawater farmed, and seawater wild fish collected from the Pearl River Delta of South China), including skin, gills, gastrointestinal tract (GIT), liver, and muscle, were analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). In general, the dry weight based concentrations of Σ10PBDE (sum of BDE-28, -47, -66, -85, -99, -100, -138, -153, -154, and -183) in fish tissues followed the sequence of liver > gill > skin > GIT and muscle. The BDE congener profiles varied with fish species. Decabrominated diphenyl ether was detected in 37.4% of the total 187 samples, and this ratio may actually have been underestimated because the reporting limit for BDE-209 was considerably higher than those for other congeners. Decabrominated diphenyl ether was the dominant BDE congener in skin and GIT, and less abundant in gills, muscle, and liver. Except for skin, no significant difference in BDE-209 lipid-normalized concentrations was observed among fish tissues. These results suggest that BDE-209 can occur abundantly in the fish species under investigation, somewhat inconsistent with the results from most previous studies that reported low bioaccumulative potential of BDE-209. Combined with the likelihood that BDE-209 can be debrominated into lower brominated congeners that tend to be more toxic than BDE-209, the abundant occurrence of BDE-209 could continue to pose prolonged health risk to the ecological environment.

A total of 390 individual fish, including seven species of freshwater-farmed fish, three species of seawater-farmed fish, and three species of wild marine fish, from China were analyzed to determine the concentrations and congener distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). The levels of Sigma(10)PBDEs (sum of BDEs 28, 47, 66, 100, 99, 85, 154, 153, 138, and 183) in seawater-farmed fish (median, 13.6 ng/g) were significantly higher than those in freshwater-farmed fish (median, 10.1 ng/g) and in wild marine fish (median, 4.5 ng/g) on a lipid-weight basis. Lipid contents positively correlated with Sigma(10)PBDEs concentration (wet wt) in all fish species except for tilapia, bighead carp, bluntsnout bream, and common mullet; however, no significant relationship was found between fish length or weight and Sigma(10)PBDEs concentration except for one fish species. In general, BDE 47 was the dominant congener, with a mean contribution of 53.2%. Brominated diphenyl ether 209 was only detected in 14 samples, reflecting its low bioavailability or high degree of debromination. In addition, the ratios of BDE 47 to BDE 99 and of BDE 100 to BDE 99 in freshwater-farmed fish were significantly higher than those in seawater-farmed and wild marine fish. Freshwater-farmed fish had a relatively higher proportion of BDE 28, whereas seawater-farmed and wild marine fish contained more abundant BDE 66, BDE 100, and BDE 99. The difference in congener distribution might be indicative of different exposure pathways for PBDEs in three types of fish.