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Study Question: Can Chlamydia be found in the testes of infertile men?, Summary Answer: Chlamydia can be found in 16.7% of fresh testicular biopsies and 45.3% of fixed testicular biopsies taken from a selection of infertile men., What Is Known Already: Male chlamydial infection has been understudied despite male and female infections occurring at similar rates. This is particularly true of asymptomatic infections, which occur in 50% of cases. Chlamydial infection has also been associated with increased sperm DNA damage and reduced male fertility., Study Design, Size, Duration: We collected diagnostic (fixed, n = 100) and therapeutic (fresh, n = 18) human testicular biopsies during sperm recovery procedures from moderately to severely infertile men in a cross-sectional approach to sampling., Participants/materials, Setting, Methods: The diagnostic and therapeutic biopsies were tested for Chlamydia-specific DNA and protein, using real-time PCR and immunohistochemical approaches, respectively. Serum samples matched to the fresh biopsies were also assayed for the presence of Chlamydia-specific antibodies using immunoblotting techniques., Main Results and the Role of Chance: Chlamydial major outer membrane protein was detected in fixed biopsies at a rate of 45.3%. This was confirmed by detection of chlamydial DNA and TC0500 protein (replication marker). C. trachomatis DNA was detected in fresh biopsies at a rate of 16.7%, and the sera from each of these three positive patients contained C. trachomatis-specific antibodies. Overall, C. trachomatis-specific antibodies were detected in 72.2% of the serum samples from the patients providing fresh biopsies, although none of the patients were symptomatic nor had they reported a previous sexually transmitted infection diagnosis including Chlamydia., Limitations, Reasons for Caution: No reproductively healthy male testicular biopsies were tested for the presence of Chlamydia DNA or proteins or Chlamydia-specific antibodies due to the unavailability of these samples., Wider Implications for the Findings: Application of Chlamydia-specific PCR and immunohistochemistry in this human male infertility context of testicular biopsies reveals evidence of a high prevalence of previously unrecognised infection, which may potentially have a pathogenic role in spermatogenic failure., Study Funding/competing Interest(s): Funding for this project was provided by the Australian NHMRC under project grant number APP1062198. We also acknowledge assistance from the Monash IVF Group and Queensland Fertility Group in the collection of fresh biopsies, and the Monash Health and co-author McLachlan (declared equity interest) in retrieval and sectioning of fixed biopsies. E.M. declares an equity interest in the study due to financing of fixed biopsy sectioning. All other authors declare no conflicts of interest., Trial Registration Number: N/A., (© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology.)

Objective: To identify Chlamydia trachomatis DNA by polymerase chain reaction in the upper genital tract of men with obstructive azoospermia compared with men seeking vasectomy reversal., Design: Case-control study., Setting: Tertiary referral center, Aberdeen Royal Infirmary, Aberdeen, United Kingdom., Patient(s): Cases were men with idiopathic obstructive azoospermia, and controls were men with azoospermia secondary to vasectomy., Intervention(s): Chlamydia trachomatis-specific DNA test by polymerase chain reaction on testicular and epididymal biopsy samples, as well as epididymal aspirate., Main Outcome Measure(s): Presence of Chlamydia trachomatis DNA., Result(s): We did not detect the presence of Chlamydia trachomatis-specific DNA by polymerase chain reaction in the epididymis or testis of 36 asymptomatic men with obstructive azoospermia (14 cases, 22 controls)., Conclusion(s): Our hypothesis that unrecognized, asymptomatic chlamydial infection will lead to complete bilateral obstruction of the male genital tract remains unproven., (Copyright 2010 American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

We examined 243 males using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), seeding, spermogram, morphological examination of spermatozoa, electrospermography, enzyme immunoassay (antibodis to chlamydia in blood serum and seminal plasma, blood hormones). Statistics were obtained with parametric and nonparametric methods. A total of 148 patients were divided into three groups. Group 1 (n = 57) consisted of males who had previously had chlamydiasis. Their blood serum and/or seminal plasma contained antichlamydial IgA or IgG. Neither seeding nor PCR detected genital infections. Group 2 consisted of 18 patients infected with C. trachomatis. Control patients (n = 73) had no genital infections, chlamydial antibodies were not detected. Normozoospermia was diagnosed in 28% males with chlamydial infection history, 11% patients infected with chlamydia and 23% controls. Asthenozoospermia was detected in 69, 89 and 73% patients, respectively. Among chlamydial infection convalescents were patients with obstructive azoospermia (2%) which was not found in infected and healthy males.