1. The Constrained Maximal Expression Level Owing to Haploidy Shapes Gene Content on the Mammalian X Chromosome
- Author
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Hurst, Laurence D., Ghanbarian, Avazeh T., Forrest, Alistair R R, Huminiecki, Lukasz, Rehli, Michael, Kenneth Baillie, J., de Hoon, Michiel J L, Haberle, Vanja, Lassmann, Timo, Kulakovskiy, Ivan V., Lizio, Marina, Itoh, Masayoshi, Andersson, Robin, Mungall, Christopher J., Meehan, Terrence F., Schmeier, Sebastian, Bertin, Nicolas, Jørgensen, Mette, Dimont, Emmanuel, Arner, Erik, Schmidl, Christian, Schaefer, Ulf, Medvedeva, Yulia A., Plessy, Charles, Vitezic, Morana, Severin, Jessica, Semple, Colin A., Ishizu, Yuri, Young, Robert S., Francescatto, Margherita, Alam, Intikhab, Albanese, Davide, Altschuler, Gabriel M., Arakawa, Takahiro, Archer, John A C, Arner, Peter, Babina, Magda, Baker, Sarah, Balwierz, Piotr J., Beckhouse, Anthony G., Pradhan, Swati Bhatt, Blake, Judith A., Blumenthal, Antje, Bodega, Beatrice, Bonetti, Alessandro, Briggs, James, Brombacher, Frank, Maxwell Burroughs, A., Califano, Andrea, Cannistraci, Carlo V., Carbajo, Daniel, Chen, Yun, Chierici, Marco, Ciani, Yari, Clevers, Hans C., Dalla, Emiliano, Davis, Carrie A., Detmar, Michael, Diehl, Alexander D., Dohi, Taeko, Drabløs, Finn, Edge, Albert S B, Edinger, Matthias, Ekwall, Karl, Endoh, Mitsuhiro, Enomoto, Hideki, Fagiolini, Michela, Fairbairn, Lynsey, Fang, Hai, Farach-Carson, Mary C., Faulkner, Geoffrey J., Favorov, Alexander V., Fisher, Malcolm E., Frith, Martin C., Fujita, Rie, Fukuda, Shiro, Furlanello, Cesare, Furuno, Masaaki, Furusawa, Jun ichi, Geijtenbeek, Teunis B., Gibson, Andrew, Gingeras, Thomas, Goldowitz, Daniel, Gough, Julian, Guhl, Sven, Guler, Reto, Gustincich, Stefano, Ha, Thomas J., Hamaguchi, Masahide, Hara, Mitsuko, Harbers, Matthias, Harshbarger, Jayson, Hasegawa, Akira, Hasegawa, Yuki, Hashimoto, Takehiro, Herlyn, Meenhard, Hitchens, Kelly J., Ho Sui, Shannan J., Hofmann, Oliver M., Hoof, Ilka, Hori, Fumi, Iida, Kei, Ikawa, Tomokatsu, Jankovic, Boris R., Jia, Hui, Joshi, Anagha, Jurman, Giuseppe, Kaczkowski, Bogumil, Kai, Chieko, Kaida, Kaoru, Kaiho, Ai, Kajiyama, Kazuhiro, Kanamori, Mutsumi Katayama, Kasianov, Artem S., Kasukawa, Takeya, Katayama, Shintaro, Kato, Sachi, Kawaguchi, Shuji, Kawamoto, Hiroshi, Kawamura, Yuki I., Kawashima, Tsugumi, Kempfle, Judith S., Kenna, Tony J., Kere, Juha, Khachigian, Levon M., Kitamura, Toshio, Peter Klinken, S., Knox, Alan J., Kojima, Miki, Kojima, Soichi, Kondo, Naoto, Koseki, Haruhiko, Koyasu, Shigeo, Krampitz, Sarah, Kubosaki, Atsutaka, Kwon, Andrew T., Laros, Jeroen F J, Lee, Weonju, Lennartsson, Andreas, Li, Kang, Lilje, Berit, Lipovich, Leonard, Mackay, Alan sim, Manabe, Riichiroh, Mar, Jessica C., Marchand, Benoit, Mathelier, Anthony, Mejhert, Niklas, Meynert, Alison, Mizuno, Yosuke, de Lima Morais, David A., Morikawa, Hiromasa, Morimoto, Mitsuru, Moro, Kazuyo, Motakis, Efthymios, Motohashi, Hozumi, Mummery, Christine L., Murata, Mitsuyoshi, Nagao, Sayaka Sato, Nakachi, Yutaka, Nakahara, Fumio, Nakamura, Toshiyuki, Nakamura, Yukio, Nakazato, Kenichi, van Nimwegen, Erik, Ninomiya, Noriko, Nishiyori, Hiromi, Noma, Shohei, Nozaki, Tadasuke, Ogishima, Soichi, Ohkura, Naganari, Ohmiya, Hiroko, Ohno, Hiroshi, Ohshima, Mitsuhiro, Okada, Mariko Hatakeyama, Okazaki, Yasushi, Orlando, Valerio, Ovchinnikov, Dmitry A., Pain, Arnab, Passier, Robert, Patrikakis, Margaret, Persson, Helena, Piazza, Silvano, Prendergast, James G D, Rackham, Owen J L, Ramilowski, Jordan A., Rashid, Mamoon, Ravasi, Timothy, Rizzu, Patrizia, Roncador, Marco, Roy, Sugata, Rye, Morten B., Saijyo, Eri, Sajantila, Antti, Saka, Akiko, Sakaguchi, Shimon, Sakai, Mizuho, Sato, Hiroki, Satoh, Hironori, Savvi, Suzana, Saxena, Alka, Schneider, Claudio, Schultes, Erik A., Schulze-Tanzil, Gundula G., Schwegmann, Anita, Sengstag, Thierry, Sheng, Guojun, Shimoji, Hisashi, Shimoni, Yishai, Shin, Jay W., Simon, Christophe, Sugiyama, Daisuke, Sugiyama, Takaaki, Suzuki, Masanori, Suzuki, Naoko, Swoboda, Rolf K., 't Hoen, Peter A C, Tagami, Michihira, Takahashi, Naoko, Takai, Jun, Tanaka, Hiroshi, Tatsukawa, Hideki, Tatum, Zuotian, Thompson, Mark, Toyoda, Hiroo, Toyoda, Tetsuro, Valen, Eivind, van de Wetering, Marc, van den Berg, Linda M., Verardo, Roberto, Vijayan, Dipti, Vorontsov, Ilya E., Wasserman, Wyeth W., Watanabe, Shoko, Wells, Christine A., Winteringham, Louise N., Wolvetang, Ernst, Wood, Emily J., Yamaguchi, Yoko, Yamamoto, Masayuki, Yoneda, Misako, Yonekura, Yohei, Yoshida, Shigehiro, Zabierowski, Suzan E., Zhang, Peter G., Zhao, Xiaobei, Zucchelli, Silvia, Summers, Kim M., Suzuki, Harukazu, Daub, Carsten O., Kawai, Jun, Heutink, Peter, Hide, Winston, Freeman, Tom C., Lenhard, Boris, Bajic, Vladimir B., Taylor, Martin S., Makeev, Vsevolod J., Sandelin, Albin Gustav, Hume, David A., Carninci, Piero, Hayashizaki, Yoshihide, Hubrecht Institute for Developmental Biology and Stem Cell Research, Barton, Nick H, Amsterdam institute for Infection and Immunity, Infectious diseases, and Experimental Immunology
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Male ,Medical and Health Sciences ,Essential ,Models ,Gene expression ,Databases, Genetic ,Biology (General) ,Non-U.S. Gov't ,X-linked recessive inheritance ,X chromosome ,Cells, Cultured ,Regulation of gene expression ,Genetics ,Sex Characteristics ,Dosage compensation ,Tumor ,Cultured ,Genes, Essential ,Genome ,Agricultural and Biological Sciences(all) ,General Neuroscience ,Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't ,Biological Sciences ,Organ Specificity ,Female ,General Agricultural and Biological Sciences ,Research Article ,Human ,X Chromosome ,Retroelements ,QH301-705.5 ,Neuroscience(all) ,1.1 Normal biological development and functioning ,Cells ,Down-Regulation ,Biology ,Research Support ,General Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology ,Chromosomes ,Cell Line ,Databases ,Genetic ,Species Specificity ,Underpinning research ,Immunology and Microbiology(all) ,Cell Line, Tumor ,Journal Article ,Animals ,Humans ,Comparative Study ,Gene ,Chromosomes, Human, X ,Autosome ,General Immunology and Microbiology ,Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences ,Models, Genetic ,Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology(all) ,Genome, Human ,Mammalian ,Human Genome ,Chromosomes, Mammalian ,Genes ,Gene Expression Regulation ,Human genome ,FANTOM consortium ,Developmental Biology - Abstract
X chromosomes are unusual in many regards, not least of which is their nonrandom gene content. The causes of this bias are commonly discussed in the context of sexual antagonism and the avoidance of activity in the male germline. Here, we examine the notion that, at least in some taxa, functionally biased gene content may more profoundly be shaped by limits imposed on gene expression owing to haploid expression of the X chromosome. Notably, if the X, as in primates, is transcribed at rates comparable to the ancestral rate (per promoter) prior to the X chromosome formation, then the X is not a tolerable environment for genes with very high maximal net levels of expression, owing to transcriptional traffic jams. We test this hypothesis using The Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE) and data from the Functional Annotation of the Mammalian Genome (FANTOM5) project. As predicted, the maximal expression of human X-linked genes is much lower than that of genes on autosomes: on average, maximal expression is three times lower on the X chromosome than on autosomes. Similarly, autosome-to-X retroposition events are associated with lower maximal expression of retrogenes on the X than seen for X-to-autosome retrogenes on autosomes. Also as expected, X-linked genes have a lesser degree of increase in gene expression than autosomal ones (compared to the human/Chimpanzee common ancestor) if highly expressed, but not if lowly expressed. The traffic jam model also explains the known lower breadth of expression for genes on the X (and the Z of birds), as genes with broad expression are, on average, those with high maximal expression. As then further predicted, highly expressed tissue-specific genes are also rare on the X and broadly expressed genes on the X tend to be lowly expressed, both indicating that the trend is shaped by the maximal expression level not the breadth of expression per se. Importantly, a limit to the maximal expression level explains biased tissue of expression profiles of X-linked genes. Tissues whose tissue-specific genes are very highly expressed (e.g., secretory tissues, tissues abundant in structural proteins) are also tissues in which gene expression is relatively rare on the X chromosome. These trends cannot be fully accounted for in terms of alternative models of biased expression. In conclusion, the notion that it is hard for genes on the Therian X to be highly expressed, owing to transcriptional traffic jams, provides a simple yet robustly supported rationale of many peculiar features of X’s gene content, gene expression, and evolution., Laurence Hurst, Lukasz Huminiecki, and the FANTOM5 consortium propose a new explanation for the peculiar expression properties of genes on the human X chromosome, based on the premise that very high expression levels cannot be achieved on a haploid-expressed chromosome., Author Summary Genes located on the human X chromosome are not a random mix of genes: they tend to be expressed in relatively few tissues or are specific for a particular set of tissues, e.g., brain regions. Prior attempts to explain this skewed gene content have hypothesized that the X chromosome might be peculiar because it has to balance mutations that are advantageous to one sex but deleterious to the other, or because it has to shut down during the process of sperm manufacture in males. Here we suggest and test a third possible explanation: that genes on the X chromosome are limited in their transcription levels and thus tend to be genes that are lowly or specifically expressed. We consider the suggestion that since these genes can only be expressed from one chromosome, as males only have one X, the ability to express a gene at very high rates is limited owing to potential transcriptional traffic jams. As predicted, we find that human X-located genes have maximal expression rates far below that of genes residing on autosomes. When we look at genes that have moved onto or off the X chromosome during recent evolution, we find the maximal expression is higher when not on the X chromosome. We also find that X-located genes that are relatively highly expressed are not able to increase their expression level further. Our model explains both the enrichment for tissue specificity and the paucity of certain tissues with X-located genes. Genes underrepresented on the X are either expressed in many tissues—such genes tend to have high maximal expression—or are from tissues that require a lot of transcription (e.g., fast secreting tissues like the liver). Just as many of the findings cannot be explained by the two earlier models, neither can the traffic jam model explain all the peculiar features of the genes found on the X chromosome. Indeed, we find evidence of a reproduction-related bias in X-located genes, even after allowing for the traffic jam problem.
- Published
- 2015