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Objectives To assess the safety and acceptability of early infant circumcision (EIC) provided by trained clinical officers (COs) and registered nurse midwives (RNMWs) in rural Uganda. Subjects and Methods We conducted a randomised trial of EIC using the Mogen clamp provided by newly trained COs and RNMWs in four health centres in rural Rakai, Uganda. The trial was registered with clinicaltrials.gov # NCT02596282. In all, 501 healthy neonates aged 1–28 days with normal birth weight and gestational age were randomised to COs (n = 256) and RNMWs (n = 245) for EIC, and were followed-up at 1, 7 and 28 days. Results In all, 701 mothers were directly invited to participate in the trial, 525 consented to circumcision (74.9%) and 23 were found ineligible on screening (4.4%). The procedure took an average of 10.5 min. Adherence to follow-up was >90% at all scheduled visits. The rates of moderate/severe adverse events were 2.4% for COs and 1.6% for RNMWs (P = 0.9). All wounds were healed by 28 days after circumcision. Maternal satisfaction with the procedure was 99.6% for infants circumcised by COs and 100% among infants circumcised by RNMWs. Conclusions EIC was acceptable in this rural Ugandan population and can be safely performed by RNMWs who have direct contact with the mothers during pregnancy and delivery. EIC services should be made available to parents who are interested in the service.

OBJECTIVES Medical male circumcision (MMC) is recommended for HIV prevention in men. We assessed the acceptability and safety of the Shang Ring device compared with those of the dorsal slit method. METHODS HIV-negative, uncircumcised men aged 18 years or older who requested free MMC services in rural Rakai, Uganda, were informed about the Shang Ring and dorsal slit procedures and offered a free choice of procedure. Men were followed at 7 days postoperatively to assess adverse events related to surgery and to remove the Shang Ring. Wound healing was assessed at 4 weeks postoperatively. RESULTS Six hundred twenty-one men were enrolled, of whom 508 (81.8%) chose the Shang Ring and 113 the dorsal slit. The Shang Ring was provided to 504 men, among whom there were 4 failures of Ring placement (0.8%) that required surgical hemostasis and wound closure. Five hundred men received the Shang Ring and postoperative surgery-related moderate adverse events were 1.0%, compared with 0.8% among dorsal slit recipients. Complete wound healing at 4 weeks was 84% with the Ring and 100% with the dorsal slit (P < 0001). Resumption of intercourse before 4 weeks was 7.0% with the Ring and 15.0% with the dorsal slit (P = 0.01.) The mean time for surgery was 6.1 minutes with the Ring and 17.7 minutes with the dorsal slit. The mean time for Ring removal was 2.2 minutes. CONCLUSIONS The Shang Ring is highly acceptable and safe in this setting, and could improve the efficiency of MMC services. However, back-up surgical services are needed in cases of Ring placement failures.

Background A randomized trial of voluntary medical male circumcision (MC) of HIV—infected men reported increased HIV transmission to female partners among men who resumed sexual intercourse prior to wound healing. We conducted a prospective observational study to assess penile HIV shedding after MC. Methods and Findings HIV shedding was evaluated among 223 HIV—infected men (183 self—reported not receiving antiretroviral therapy [ART], 11 self—reported receiving ART and had a detectable plasma viral load [VL], and 29 self—reported receiving ART and had an undetectable plasma VL [ 50,000 copies/ml than among those with an HIV plasma VL < 400 copies/ml (adjPRR = 10.3, 95% CI = 4.25–24.90, p < 0.001). Detectable HIV shedding was less common in visits from men with healed MC wounds compared to visits from men without healed wounds (adjPRR = 0.12, 95% CI = 0.07–0.23, p < 0.001) and in visits from men on ART with undetectable plasma VL compared to men not on ART (PRR = 0.15, 95% CI = 0.05–0.43, p = 0.001). Among men with detectable penile HIV shedding, the median log10 HIV copies/milliliter of lavage fluid was significantly lower in men with ART—induced undetectable plasma VL (1.93, interquartile range [IQR] = 1.83–2.14) than in men not on ART (2.63, IQR = 2.28–3.22, p < 0.001). Limitations of this observational study include significant differences in baseline covariates, lack of confirmed receipt of ART for individuals who reported ART use, and lack of information on potential ART initiation during follow—up for those who were not on ART at enrollment. Conclusion Penile HIV shedding is significantly reduced after healing of MC wounds. Lower plasma VL is associated with decreased frequency and quantity of HIV shedding from MC wounds. Starting ART prior to MC should be considered to reduce male-to-female HIV transmission risk. Research is needed to assess the time on ART required to decrease shedding, and the acceptability and feasibility of initiating ART at the time of MC., In this prospective cohort study, Aaron Tobian and colleagues examine the associations between male circumcision wound healing, as well as plasma viral load, and HIV shedding from male circumcision wounds., Editors' Summary Background About 35 million people are currently infected with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS by destroying immune system cells, and every year, 2 million more people become HIV-positive. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) can keep HIV in check, but there is no cure for AIDS. Consequently, prevention of HIV acquisition and transmission is an important component of efforts to control the AIDS epidemic. Because HIV is most often spread through unprotected sex with an infected partner, individuals can reduce their risk of becoming HIV-positive by abstaining from sex, by having only one or a few partners, and by using male or female condoms. In addition, three trials undertaken in sub-Saharan Africa a decade ago showed that male circumcision—the surgical removal of the foreskin, a loose fold of skin that covers the head of the penis—can halve the HIV acquisition rate in men. Thus, since 2007, the World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended voluntary medical male circumcision for individuals living in countries with high HIV prevalence as part of its HIV prevention strategy. Why Was This Study Done? With the rollout of voluntary medical male circumcision programs, circumcision has become more normative (regarded as acceptable), and HIV-positive men are increasingly requesting circumcision because they want to avoid any stigma associated with being uncircumcised and because circumcision provides health benefits. WHO recommends that, although circumcision should not be promoted for HIV-positive men, voluntary circumcision programs should operate on HIV-positive men if they request circumcision. However, in a trial of circumcision of HIV-infected men, HIV transmission to their female partners increased if the couples had sexual intercourse before the circumcision wound had healed. Moreover, in studies of current male circumcision programs, two-thirds of married men and a third of all men reported that they resumed sexual intercourse before their circumcision wounds had healed. Thus, better understanding of how male circumcision increases HIV transmission to female partners is essential, and improved ways to prevent transmission in the post-surgical period are needed. Here, in a prospective observational study (an investigation that collects data over time from people undergoing a specific procedure), the researchers assess HIV shedding from the penis after circumcision. What Did the Researchers Do and Find? The researchers evaluated penile HIV shedding among 223 HIV-infected men (183 men who self-reported not being on ART and 40 men who self-reported being on ART, 29 of whom had no detectable virus in their blood) living in Rakai, Uganda, by examining preoperative and postoperative penile lavage (wash) samples. Viral shedding was detected in 9.3% of the men not on ART before surgery and in 39.3% of these men during the entire study. Relative to baseline, a greater proportion of men shed virus at one, two, and three weeks after circumcision, but a lower proportion shed virus at six and twelve weeks after circumcision. HIV shedding was more frequent among men with a high amount of virus in their blood (a high viral load) than among men with a low viral load. Moreover, the frequency of HIV shedding was lower in visits from men with healed circumcision wounds than in visits from men with unhealed wounds, and in visits from men on ART with no detectable virus in their blood than in visits from men not on ART men. Finally, among men with detectable penile HIV shedding, men on ART with no detectable virus in their blood shed fewer copies of virus than men not on ART. What Do These Findings Mean? The findings suggest that healed circumcision wounds are associated with reduced penile HIV shedding in HIV-positive men compared to unhealed circumcision wounds and HIV shedding prior to circumcision In addition, they suggest that a lower HIV viral load in the blood is associated with a decreased frequency and quantity of HIV shedding from circumcision wounds. Because this was an observational study, these findings cannot prove that healed wounds or reduced blood viral load actually caused reduced penile HIV shedding. Moreover, the accuracy of these findings may be affected by the lack of information on ART initiation during follow-up among men not initially on ART and by reliance on ART self-report. Nevertheless, these findings highlight the importance of counseling HIV-positive men undergoing circumcision to avoid sexual intercourse until their circumcision wound heals. In addition, these findings suggest that it might be possible to reduce HIV transmission among HIV-positive men immediately after circumcision by starting these individuals on ART before circumcision. Further research is needed to assess how long before circumcision ART should be initiated and to assess the acceptability and feasibility of initiating ART concurrent with circumcision. Additional Information Please access these websites via the online version of this summary at http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001820. Information is available from the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases on HIV infection and AIDS NAM/aidsmap provides basic information about HIV/AIDS, summaries of recent research findings on HIV care and treatment, information on male circumcision for the prevention of HIV transmission, and personal stories about living with HIV/AIDS Information is available from Avert, an international AIDS charity on many aspects of HIV/AIDS, including information on HIV prevention, on voluntary medical male circumcision for HIV prevention, and on HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa; Avert also provides personal stories about living with HIV/AIDS The World Health Organization provides information on all aspects of HIV/AIDS (in several languages), including on voluntary medical male circumcision for HIV prevention The UNAIDS Fast-Track Strategy to End the AIDS Epidemic by 2030 provides up-to-date information about the AIDS epidemic and efforts to halt it The Clearinghouse on Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention provides up-to-date information and resources on male circumcision for HIV prevention

Background Medical male circumcision (MC) of HIV-infected men may increase plasma HIV viral load and place female partners at risk of infection. We assessed the effect of MC on plasma HIV viral load in HIV-infected men in Rakai, Uganda. Methods 195 consenting HIV-positive, HAART naive men aged 12 and above provided blood for plasma HIV viral load testing before surgery and weekly for six weeks and at 2 and 3 months post surgery. Data were also collected on baseline social demographic characteristics and CD4 counts. Change in log10 plasma viral load between baseline and follow-up visits was estimated using paired t tests and multivariate generalized estimating equation (GEE). Results Of the 195 men, 129 had a CD4 count ≧350 and 66 had CD4

To assess completed wound healing after medical male circumcision (MMC) among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-negative and HIV-positive men with cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) counts of350 and ≥350 cells/mm(3) , as minimal data are available on the safety of MMC among HIV-positive men with low CD4 counts.In all, 262 HIV-negative and 177 HIV-positive consenting males aged ≥12 years accepted MMC using the dorsal slit procedure and were enrolled in the study. Socio-demographic and behavioural data and blood for HIV testing and CD4 counts were collected at baseline. Participants were followed weekly to collect information on resumption of sex, condom use and both self-reported and clinically assessed wound healing. The proportions healed among HIV-positive men were compared with HIV-negative men. Time to complete wound healing was assessed by Kaplan-Meier survival analysis.There were no statistically significant differences in the proportion of men healed by HIV status. At 4 weeks, the proportions healed were 85.9% in HIV-negative men, 77.4% in HIV-positive men with a CD4 count of ≥350 cells/mm(3) and 87.1% in HIV-positive men with a CD4 count of350 cells/mm(3) . The median time to healing was 4 weeks and did not vary by HIV or CD4 status. All men had certified complete wound healing at 6 weeks after MMC. In all, 1.4% of HIV-positive men with a CD4 count of350 cells/mm(3) resumed sex before healing, compared with 8.5% among HIV-positive men with a CD4 count of ≥350 cells/mm(3) (P = 0.052) and 7.8% (P = 0.081) among HIV-negative men.Inclusion of HIV-positive men with low CD4 counts in MMC services is not deleterious to postoperative wound healing.

Objective To assess the safety of medical male circumcision (MMC) among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)–infected men with CD4 levels 3 , CD4 counts ≥350 cells/mm 3 , and HIV-negative men. Methods Two hundred forty-two HIV-infected men and a sample of 262 HIV-negative consenting men aged 12 years or older who requested free MMC were enrolled in a prospective study. Blood for HIV testing and a CD4 count were collected before surgery. During weekly follow-up over 6 weeks, data were collected on wound healing and adverse events (AEs) by examination, and resumption of sex and condom use ascertained by interview. Surgery-related AEs were characterized by type, severity, management, and resolution. Chi-square and Fisher's exact tests were used to test for differences in AE proportions. Results Overall, only 2 of the 453 men experienced moderate AEs, a rate of 0.44 per 100 surgeries. No AE occurred among HIV-negative men, whereas the AE rate among HIV-infected men with CD4 counts ≥350 cells/mm 3 was 0.79 per 100 surgeries, and among men with CD4 counts 3 the rate was 1.19 per 100 surgeries ( P = .214). AE rates were comparable for all characteristics ( P >.05). Conclusion HIV-positive men can be safely included in MMC roll out programs without necessitating presurgery CD4 counts determination.

To assess self-reported pain control during and after surgery with a mixture of lignocaine and bupivacaine compared with lignocaine alone among male circumcision (MC) service recipients in Rakai, Uganda.The two formulations of local anaesthesia for MC were used alternatively at weekly intervals in 360 patients; 179 received lignocaine alone and 181 received the lignocaine and bupivacaine mixture (LBmix). The proportions of men reporting pain during or after surgery, and the need for additional anaesthesia during surgery were determined for the LBmix vs lignocaine using Poisson adjusted rate ratios (RRs). Characteristics including age, weight, surgeon (medical officer vs clinical officer), surgical method and duration of surgery were compared between the arms using two-sample t-tests and chi-square tests.Patient and provider characteristics were comparable between the two anaesthetic groups. A higher proportion of patients reported pain during surgery in the lignocaine group (adjusted RR 11.6, 95% confidence interval [CI] 3.5-37.9, P0.001), required additional anaesthesia (adjusted RR 4.8, 95% CI 1.4-17.1, P = 0.015), and were more likely to report pain during the immediate postoperative period (adjusted RR 3.4, 95% CI 2.3-5.0, P0.001). These differences were particularly marked among patients with MC times longer than the median (adjusted RR 13.4, 95% CI 3.1-57.0, P0.001).The LBmix significantly reduced pain associated with MC and the need for additional anaesthesia during MC.

Objective To describe the designing and usage of a locally made low-cost penile model used for male medical circumcision (MMC) skills training. Material and Methods The Rakai MMC training team has experienced a number of challenges during conduct of MMC skills training, one of which was the lack of a model to use for MMC skills training. To address this challenge, the Rakai MMC skills training team has designed and developed a low-cost penile model for use in MMC skills training. Results The model has been successfully used to demonstrate external penile anatomy, to describe the biological mechanisms through which male circumcision (MC) prevents HIV acquisition, and for demonstration and practice of the MMC procedures. Conclusions With an initial cost of only $10 and a recurrent cost of $5, this is a cost-efficient and useful penile model that provides a simulation of normal penile anatomy for use in MC training in resource-limited settings. It has also been used as a visual aid in preoperative education of patients before receiving male circumcision. The model can be improved and scaled up to develop cheaper commercial penile models.

To assess the number of procedures required to achieve optimal competency (time required for surgery with minimal adverse events) in Rakai, Uganda, and thus facilitate the development of guidelines for training providers, as male circumcision reduces the acquisition of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in men and is recommended for HIV prevention.In a randomized trial, 3011 men were circumcised, using the sleeve method, by six physicians who had completed training, which included 15-20 supervised procedures. The duration of surgery from local anaesthesia to wound closure, moderate or severe surgery-related adverse events (AEs), and wound healing were assessed in relation to the number of procedures done by each physician.The median age of the patients was 24 years. The number of procedures per surgeon was 20-981. The mean time required to complete surgery was approximately 40 min for the first 100 procedures and declined to 25 min for the subsequent 100 circumcisions. After controlling for the number of procedures there was no significant difference in duration of the surgery by patient HIV status or age. The rate of moderate and severe AEs was 8.8% (10/114) for the first 19 unsupervised procedures after training, 4.0% for the next 20-99 (13/328) and 2.0% for the last 100 (P for trend, 0.003). All AEs resolved with management.The completion of more than 100 circumcisions was required before newly trained physicians achieved the optimum duration of surgery. AEs were higher immediately after training and additional supervision is needed for at least the first 20 procedures after completing training.