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This article studies eight cities in four countries in the southern African region (Namibia, Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Botswana) to explore whether and how local governing authority has been channelled towards local climate-resilient development. The authors undertook a desk-based identification and review of available primary and secondary legal sources and normative documents while also drawing on scientific papers and policy documents for statistics and information about urbanization, climate change, politics, and governance in the selected countries. The analysis is interested in the law but is not strictly of a legal nature in the sense that the authors did not aim for a critical analysis of the regulatory detail in the relevant legal instruments. Instead, the article provides an evaluation of the political, de facto choices made by selected local governments as to how and to what extent to utilize their governing authority (legislative and executive) towards climate-resilient development. The authors explore if and how local government powers in the four southern African countries are currently leveraged for local climate action, and comment on the possible reasons for the status quo by comparing the four jurisdictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – This paper aims to report on the results of a case study in Botswana, aimed at raising awareness on climate issues. Higher-education institutions play a leading role in sustainability efforts, as their research role often lays the groundwork for social transformation. Design/methodology/approach – The Clean Air-Cool Planet (CACP) campus calculator was used to calculate emissions from various sections within the college. Findings – Total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the college is 3,432.66 metric tons CO2e resulting in per capita GHG emissions of 3.20 metric tons CO2e, which is high compared to other universities. Options for reducing emissions are proposed. Practical implications – The procedure in carrying out the study provided learners with an opportunity to appreciate emissions from developing countries and also gain technical skills in conducting a GHG inventory. It also sensitized campus administrators about the scale of emissions and possible ways of reducing them. Originality/value – This paper is original in that it provides campus greenhouse inventory within a developing country, a unique undertaking. Furthermore, it highlights the fact that developing countries also produce significant emissions, hence the need for mitigation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Central parts of southern Africa are expected to face major environmental and economic changes in the near future, calling for proactive thinking on how local people could diversify their livelihoods. In Botswana, the tourism industry is considered as a major option for economic diversification and current tourism policies include a strong emphasis on tourism that participates in and benefits communities. The developmental impact of tourism depends on how the local communities perceive their livelihood options and the role of tourism. This paper analyses how community members in selected villages in Kalahari Desert perceive the current and estimated future impacts of climate change and how these impacts may influence their livelihoods in future and what role the tourism industry may play in that process. Based on the results, there are minimal local benefits and participation in tourism, which limits the potential of tourism to work for sustainable local development in practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tourism is an important economic sector in the Global South. It is however vulnerable to the risks and variations associated with global climate change. The paper qualitatively investigates how issues surrounding uncertainty in the climate change discourse have influenced policy makers' response to climate change in Botswana's tourism sector. The analysis of the empirical data derived from in-depth interviews demonstrates that some policy makers remain skeptical about climate change and its impacts on tourism despite growing evidence from regional scientific research and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Constraints that hamper progress in policy response measures include inadequate knowledge of, and the extent to which, climate science can be trusted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change and variability threaten the sustainability of agricultural and food production, especially in agrarian communities. In Southern Africa, rainfall is expected to decline by almost 10% by the year 2050 and the largest increase in temperature can be experienced. Despite the potential risks of climate change on agricultural productivity, Botswana does not have a dedicated policy to respond to climate change. Furthermore, there is a dearth of research done in Botswana to provide an understanding of factors that shape farmers' adaptation to climate change and institutional link to the adaptive capacity of farming households. Therefore, the aim of this article is to analyse institutions that influence farmers' adaptation strategies of farmers in Botswana, using Ngamiland East as a case study. The paper relies on empirical data collected from purposively selected key informants and 300 households. The results show that the majority of farmers who have climate variability adaptation strategies in place are largely influenced by indigenous knowledge. Women and low-income earners are less likely to employ climate change adaptation strategies in order to improve their agricultural productivity. This article gives a better perspective of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats facing institutions designed to enable agricultural productivity. It recommends that macro-level and local government institutions should acknowledge the indigenous knowledge, community-level institutions and farmers' adaptive capacity in policy formulation processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change will impact rural livelihoods in Southern Africa in unprecedented ways. Successful responses must account for intersecting social and ecological factors that determine natural resource access for people living in changing social-ecological systems. However, much of the existing scholarly literature treats natural resource access as a dynamic social process, while often failing to account for how it is also ecologically variable. The social-ecological systems literature more holistically considers social and ecological aspects of resource use, but rarely considers how livelihoods themselves are social-ecological. This paper advances the argument that livelihoods are a useful entry point for understanding the complex and intersecting social-ecological factors that impact natural resource use. Findings are presented from a mixed-methods research project in the variable wetland environment of the Okavango Delta of Botswana to show how participation in various fishing practices is determined by a complex combination of flooding variability, environmental governance, and social relations tied to gender and ethnicity. This article contributes to the literatures on natural resource access and social-ecological systems, increases knowledge about rural livelihoods in Botswana, and provides broader insight into how governance of social-ecological livelihood systems throughout southern Africa are likely to be challenged by climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the years, many countries across the world have increasingly experienced the collapse of their ecosystems, leading to an elevated increase on the demand for freshwater resources. Botswana is not an exception. The problem of disrupted potable water supply is widespread across the country. However, the physical shortage of water in the country is arguably coupled by lack of effective and efficient water supply and management institutions and water infrastructure. Most of the research on water scarcity in Botswana is mostly inclined towards physical water scarcity, while little is investigated on how the design of institutions for water management in developing countries leads to water scarcity. Furthermore, the premises of most research is neoclassical economics ideas, thereby offering solutions as developing and/or reforming water markets and water pricing mechanisms, among other findings. This paper analyses potable water supply and access in Botswana within a new institutional economics paradigm. The study examines key features of water institutions in Botswana on how they affect water supply and access, applying new institutional economics fundamentals. The study extensively uses various secondary data sources including weather and climate reports, policy documents, maps and charts and survey data, among others. The paper argues that to achieve effective water allocation in Botswana, there is a need to balance social and environmental water resource needs through water policies and other statutory enactments, as well as the crafting of practical management strategies. The country, therefore, requires not only a swift institutional transformation in the water sector, but also needs practical governance structure necessary for implementing integrated water resources management and driving water resources towards sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on government and other relevant documentation, this paper explores the conceptual linkage between population, development, and waste management in Botswana and the implications of this relationship for global climate change. Population is increasing, albeit at a decreasing rate. Spatially, the population is becoming more and more concentrated as the rates and level of urbanization increase. Economic growth has remained consistently high. The combined effect of population dynamics and economic development are having a noticeable imprint on the environment in the form of increased waste generation. Poor waste management poses a real threat to environmental sustainability in general and climate change in particular because of inadequate technology, weak institutional mechanisms to enforce regulations, and low levels of sensitization among the public to deal with the problem. Mitigation measures are suggested to minimize the negative effects of waste management on climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atmospheric methane (CH) is one of the three key greenhouse gases (GHGs) driving global climate change. The atmospheric concentration of CH has increased by about 150 % above pre-industrial levels of 400-700 ppb due to anthropogenic activities. Although tropical wetlands account for 50-60 % of the global wetland CH emissions, the biogeochemistry of these wetlands, including controls of CH emissions from the systems, is poorly understood compared to temperate wetlands. This has resulted in large inter-model variations of the magnitude and distribution of CH emission estimates from these tropical wetlands. A recent study in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, estimated diffusive CH flux at 1.8 ± 0.2 Tg year, accounting for 2.8 ± 0.3 % of the total CH emission from tropical wetlands. In this paper we present an assessment of relationships between diffusive CH flux rates and physicochemical variables in the overlying water column to identify and understand regulatory variables for the diffusive CH fluxes in the Delta. The results show that diffusive CH flux rates from the Delta seem to be controlled by a combination of physicochemical variables. Although site specific fluxes seem to be controlled by different combinations of factors, temperature was the primary predictor of CH flux rates at almost all the sampled habitats and sites in the Delta. Most physicochemical variables, especially in the permanent swamps, were correlated with temperature implying that their regulatory effect on diffusive CH fluxes could be modified by climate change feedback as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tourism is a key sector for most southern African economies endowed with unique natural capital, and the industry is increasingly being used for socio-economic development and diversification of national economies in the region. However, it has become clearly evident that the natural capital upon which the sector depends is highly vulnerable to climate change. This has created urgent governmental needs to take action through policy formulation and implementation. The paper uses in-depth interviews to determine Botswana policy-makers’ perceptions of climate change and tourism with the aim of determining policy needs and constraints. The results reveal that the policy-makers do see climate change as a concern requiring urgent establishment of relevant policy. However, they foresee inadequate information as well as uncertainties surrounding the impacts of climate change on the natural capital. This may hamper the formulation and effective implementation of such a policy. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The Chobe River, characterized by an unusual flood pulsing regime and shared between Botswana and Namibia, lies at the heart of the world's largest transfrontier conservation area (the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area). Significant ecological changes and vegetation conversions are occurring along its floodplains. Various scenarios for agricultural and urban water use are currently being proposed by the government of Botswana. However, the understanding of the river's annual flow regime and timing of the relative contributions of water from three different sources is relatively poor. In light of past and future climate change and variability, this means that allocating water between ecological flows and economic and domestic uses will become increasingly challenging. We reconstruct the inundation history in this basin to help ease this challenge. This paper presents a spatiotemporal approach to estimate the contribution of water from various sources and the magnitude of changes in the flooding extent in the basin between 1985 and 2010. We used time series analysis of bimonthly NOAA AVHRR and NASA MODIS data and climatologic and hydrologic records to determine the flooding timing and extent. The results indicate that between 12 and 62 % of the basin is flooded on an annual basis and that the spatial extent of the flooding varies throughout the year as a function of the timing of peak discharge in two larger basins. A 30-year trend analysis indicates a consistent decline in the average monthly flooded area in the basin. The results may prove useful in future water utilization feasibility studies, in determining measures for protecting ecological flows and levels, and in ecosystem dynamics studies in the context of current and future climate change and variability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Climate change is expected to alter rainfall regimes across most parts of the world. The implications of this could be more severe in arid environments where rainfall is limited and highly variable in space and time. However, lack of good quality data, of sufficient record length and spatial coverage usually restricts model development and performance geared towards assessing the effects of climate change in these areas. This paper presents an analysis of rainfall and climate data in order to determine the time of change in rainfall series and identify possible correlations between rainfall and temperature. In addition, the paper aims to make predictions of future rainfall patterns in Botswana. This is achieved by using historical rainfall and climate data from rainfall stations spread across Botswana from 1965 to 2008. In addition, large scale reanalysis data from NCAR/NCEP and El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) data were used to augment the limited observed spatial climate data series when developing a rainfall model. Temperature and ENSO indices have been used to predict rainfall regimes for the present climate. Based on these, the effects of climate change were quantified using a stochastic generalised linear rainfall model (GLM) driven by outputs of global climate models (GCMs). The results indicate that temperature is a significant rainfall predictor in Botswana compared to ENSO indices. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Rainfall variability is an important feature of semi-arid climates, and climate change is likely to increase that variability in many of these regions. An understanding of rainfall variability and trends in that variability is needed to help vulnerable dryland agriculturalists and policymakers address current climate variation and future climate change. The goals of this paper are to examine this climatic phenomenon in semi-arid Botswana, to investigate these results for signs of climate change, and to explore the policy implications for climate adaptation. To reach these goals, the paper determines rainfall variability and monthly and annual trends in that variability. The results agree with earlier work showing gradients in rainfall and rainfall variability across Botswana. The results also identify a trend towards decreased rainfall throughout the nation, which is associated with decreases in the number of rainy days. Both the drying trend and decrease in rainy days agree with climate change projections for southern Africa. The paper discusses policies that the government could adopt to help its farmers adapt to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarizes the importance of climate on tropical wetlands. Regional hydrology and carbon dynamics in many of these wetlands could shift with dramatic changes in these major carbon storages if the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) were to change in its annual patterns. The importance of seasonal pulsing hydrology on many tropical wetlands, which can be caused by watershed activities, orographic features, or monsoonal pulses from the ITCZ, is illustrated by both annual and 30-year patterns of hydrology in the Okavango Delta in southern Africa. Current studies on carbon biogeochemistry in Central America are attempting to determine the rates of carbon sequestration in tropical wetlands compared to temperate wetlands and the effects of hydrologic conditions on methane generation in these wetlands. Using the same field and lab techniques, we estimated that a humid tropical wetland in Costa Rica accumulated 255 g C m year in the past 42 years, 80% more than a similar temperate wetland in Ohio that accumulated 142 g C m year over the same period. Methane emissions averaged 1,080 mg-C m day in a seasonally pulsed wetland in western Costa Rica, a rate higher than methane emission rates measured over the same period from humid tropic wetlands in eastern Costa Rica (120-278 mg-C m day). Tropical wetlands are often tuned to seasonal pulses of water caused by the seasonal movement of the ITCZ and are the most likely to be have higher fire frequency and changed methane emissions and carbon oxidation if the ITCZ were to change even slightly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Like most African countries, Botswana contributes almost insignificantly to global greenhouse emissions (GHGs). In this context, some have argued that energy policy and legislative measures to regulate emissions in Botswana should not be accorded high priority. This is a misguided view when one considers that each country, no matter how under-industrialized, contributes to the overall global emission problem. Moreover, the least developed countries will have to industrialize in order to meet the increasing economic and social needs of their growing populations. For rapidly growing economies like Botswana, whose annual energy demand is projected to increase by about 4% for the next ten years, the importance of compiling accurate inventories of sources and sinks of GHGs and formulating environmentally-friendly policies can hardly be over- emphasized. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) provides the ideal basis for the country-by-country investigations and management of global climatic change; specifically its nature, properties, directionality, characteristics and probable consequences. Botswana was a founding signatory of UNFCCC in 1992 and ratified the Convention in 1994. The country is also involved in regional cooperation efforts, within the Southern African Development Community, to enforce regulatory mechanisms to minimize GHG emissions from the energy sector. There exist certain energy-related institutions, policies, and regulations in the country which could mitigate the impact of GHG emissions on global warming. This paper, based on government and other relevant documentation, critically analyses Botswana's energy sector policies in as far as they affect climate change. It is clear that much still needs to be done about energy policies in terms of proper formulation, monitoring, co-ordination, energy pricing and the exploration of energy alternatives to mitigate potentially negative impacts on climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rising surface air temperatures, coupled with delays in the onset of austral summer rains and increased fuel load have amplified forest fire risk over southern Africa. This study investigates interactions between climate change and fire risk in South Africa's northern savanna biome. We employ the CCAM model to simulate the reference climate and project future forest fire risk on the savanna. An ensemble of six CMIP5 GCMs were downscaled to 8 km to project climate change in the far-future (2080 to 2099) under RCP8.5 emission scenario. The models were validated using ERA5-Land reanalyses whilst future projections focused on the 10th, 50th and 90th percentiles. The frequency of high fire risk days was calculated using a McArthur Forest Fire Danger Index (FFDI) which links meteorological variables to fire danger. The ensemble simulated widespread temperature rises of between 4.5 and 6 °C across the savanna, whilst rainfall is projected to decline by up to 20 mm/month, with corresponding decreases in minimum relative humidity. Heat wave days are projected to increase to above 8 days per annum, whilst soil moisture deficiency increases by above 50 mm on the savanna. Consequently, mean annual high fire danger days are projected to reach a peak frequency of 25 days in October, with an autumnal secondary peak. Spatially, greater increases in high FFDI days were projected over the western savanna extending toward neighbouring Botswana. This study contributes to understanding fire risk under unprecedented temperature rises which appear to be modulating fire intensity in the study region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Futuristic rainfall projections are used in scale and various climate impact assessments. However, the influence of climate variability on spatial distribution patterns and characteristics of rainfall at the local level, especially in semi-arid catchments that are highly variable and are not well explored. In this study, we explore the influence of climate variability on the spatial distribution and rainfall characteristics at a local scale in the semi-arid Shashe catchment, Northeastern Botswana. The LARS-WG, Long Ashton Research Station Weather Generator downscaling method, three representative scenarios (RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, and RCP 4.5), three trend detection methods (Mann-Kendall, Sen's slope, and innovative trend analysis) and L-moment method were used to assess climate change impacts on rainfall. Two data sets were used; one with 40 years of observed data from 1981–2020 and the other with 70 years from 1981–2050 (40 years of observed and 30 years of projected data from 2021–2050). Generally, the study found trend inconsistencies for all the trend detection methods. In most cases, Sen's Slope has a high estimate of observed and RCP 2.6, while ITA overestimates rainfall totals under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5. The trend is increasing for annual total rainfall in most gauging stations while decreasing for annual maximum rainfall. The catchment is homogeneous, and Generalized Logistic distribution is the dataset's best-fit distribution. Spatial coverage of a 100-year rainfall between 151–180 mm will be 81% based on observed data and 87% based on projected data under RCP 2.6 scenario when it happens. A 200-year rainfall between 196–240 mm under RCP 4.5 and 8.5 has high spatial areal coverage, at least 90% of the total catchment. The outcomes of this study will provide insightful information for water resource management and flood risk assessment under climate change. There is a need, however, to assess the transferability of this approach to other catchments in the country and assess the performance of other advanced modelling systems, such as machine learning, in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This articles presents a new series of maps showing the climate and environmental variability of Botswana. Situated in southern Africa, Botswana has an arid to semi-arid climate, which significantly varies in its different regions: Kalahari Desert, Makgadikgadi Pan and Okavango Delta. While desert regions are prone to droughts and periods of extreme heat during the summer months, other regions experience heavy downpours, as well as episodic and unpredictable rains that affect agricultural activities. Such climatic variations affect social and economic aspects of life in Botswana. This study aimed to visualise the non-linear correlations between the topography and climate setting at the country's scale. Variables included T °C min, T °C max, precipitation, soil moisture, evapotranspiration (PET and AET), downward surface shortwave radiation, vapour pressure and vapour pressure deficit (VPD), wind speed and Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI). The dataset was taken from the TerraClimate source and GEBCO for topographic mapping. The mapping approach included the use of Generic Mapping Tools (GMT), a console-based scripting toolset, which enables the use of a scripting method of automated mapping. Several GMT modules were used to derive a set of climate parameters for Botswana. The data were supplemented with the adjusted cartographic elements and inspected by the Geospatial Data Abstraction Library (GDAL). The PDSI in Botswana in 2018 shows stepwise variation with seven areas of drought: (1) −3.7 to −2.2. (extreme); (2) −2.2 to −0.8 (strong, southern Kalahari); (3) −0.8 to 0.7 (significant, central Kalahari; (4) 0.7 to 2.1 (moderate); (5) 2.1 to 3.5 (lesser); (6) 3.5 to 4.9 (low); (7) 4.9 to 6.4 (least). The VPD has a general trend towards the south-western region (Kalahari Desert, up to 3.3), while it is lower in the north-eastern region of Botswana (up to 1.4). Other values vary respectively, as demonstrated in the presented 12 maps of climate and environmental inventory in Botswana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental perceptions are inherently based on an individual's existing knowledge, experiences, and future expectations. Methods for measuring environmental perception, therefore, must capture a range of experiences while also being flexible enough to integrate these experiences into a coherent unit for analysis. Many research topics require cross-cultural comparisons in order to corroborate findings; however, assessments of environmental perception are often place- and context-specific. We propose here post-survey Likert constructions (PSLCs), using semi-structured interviews to construct a five-point scale system from multiple household responses after the completion of interviews. This method is able to capture the natural variability in the population using the respondents' own language and characterizations of phenomena. We applied this method to measure the perceived environmental variability of residents living in a dynamic flooding landscape in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. The PSLC method captures the differences in environmental perception in a location with different settlement and cultural histories, multiple language groups, and different environmental conditions. The method easily transfers to other environments and populations, allowing for potential cross-cultural comparisons of perceived environmental variability. This publication responds to calls for increased transparency in reporting the development, execution, advantages, and disadvantages of methods related to environmental change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the role of livelihood diversification in household adaptation to flood variability in the Okavango Delta, and locates it within the global discourse on adaptation to climate variability and change in developing countries. The contribution of livelihood activities to household income, level of livelihood diversity and the relationship between livelihood diversification and adaptation to flood variability was determined. Data from a survey of 623 households in five villages, focus group discussions and key informant interviews confirmed livelihood diversification as an important strategy for household adaptation to flood variability in the Delta. However, the household income portfolio was dominated by public transfers, underscoring the weak socio-economic status of the households and the effects of multiple shocks over and above flood variability. The study concludes that livelihood diversification and other household adaptive strategies may be sufficient for current flood variations, but may be inadequate for dealing with global climate variability and change in future. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The rise in world population growth and its attendant rise in demand for food and living standards in addition to climate change scenarios continue to warrant the need for sustainable management of natural resources. The paper, therefore, analysed climate change actions and water demand management approaches employed by Botswana Stock Exchange (BSE) listed companies to manage water resources. Fourteen of the twenty-four domestic companies were reviewed using self-completed, open ended questionnaires and secondary data. Thematic Analysis method of qualitative research was employed to analyse the textual data. The results revealed that water demand management (WDM) practices and strategies among companies ranged from, rainwater harvesting, water reclamation and reuse, water efficient fixtures and appliances, awareness/knowledge creation strategies and risk management. The unearthed information on private companies' holistic water use strategies could facilitate environmental sustainability and operational economic gains. • Limited water resources compel private sector to practice Water Demand Management. • Examples include rainwater harvesting, water reclamation and reuse. • Stock exchanges assist in shaping company's responses to water scarcity. • Climate action is an integral component of Water Demand Management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The natural resources of the Okavango Delta, a large wetland in semi-arid Botswana, form the basis of livelihoods of the local population and support economically important high-end tourism. The hydro-ecological system is dynamic at various time scales, responding to climate variability, and both flood and drought conditions have in the past put pressure on the system's users. Human-induced climate change can potentially exacerbate the effects of existing climate variability. In this paper, we present simulated future hydro-ecological conditions in the Okavango Delta generated by a step-wise modelling procedure. The outputs of three different global climate models are used to drive a suite of hydrological models. Lastly, a rule-based dynamic model relates hydroperiod conditions to vegetation assemblages. The simulated future conditions vary from much drier to much wetter than those recorded in the past. Models indicate that climatic change would result in change in both extent and distribution of the major ecotopes of the Okavango Delta. Importantly, the different ecotopes will be affected to varying degrees. The projected changes will have consequences for the wildlife-based management of the system. They will affect, for example, available grazing and migration/movement patterns of large herbivores, as well as fish. Such consequences can have rapid up-trophic level effects, ultimately leading to potentially substantial impacts on the economy. The main conclusion to be drawn is that management planning and land-use systems should be as flexible as possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Though there is increasing recognition of the cultural dimensions that shape climate change adaptation, our experience from working with actors engaged in adaptation policy and practice suggests that the role of culture still tends to be conceived in overly narrow and fixed terms. This is exemplified in portrayals of conservative cultural norms as stifling positive change. A growing body of research across the world indicates that the reality is seldom as simple as this—culture works in complex and variable ways, and, most importantly, is inherently dynamic. Drawing especially from research work on vulnerability and adaptation conducted in semi‐arid regions, we illustrate this argument by briefly exploring three themes—multiple knowledge systems for farming in Botswana, the dynamics of pastoralist values and livelihoods in Kenya, and the interplay of caste and livelihood choices in India. Understanding how different facets of culture such as these operate in context helps move away from viewing culture statically as a barrier or enabler, and toward a more plural and dynamic appreciation of the role of culture in adaptation. This includes recognizing the potential for factors that may be construed as barriers to become enablers. Critical, balanced engagement with cultural dimensions in both research and practice, understanding and working with these dynamic social structures, is essential if adaptation is to create meaningful and lasting change for those who need it most. This article is categorized under: Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change > Values‐Based Approach to Vulnerability and Adaptation [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resting egg production is considered the most common form of dormancy in aquatic invertebrates. Given that many taxa at least partially terminate resting egg state using environmental cues, knowledge on environmental drivers of hatching success is important, particularly within the context of climate change and environmental degradation. Fairy shrimp (anostracans) are temporary wetland specialists that are reliant on resting egg production for population persistence. Temporary wetlands are common in many arid regions projected to experience increases in temperature, and in areas often compromised by human‐mediated activities. In this study, we assessed the combined effects of light and temperature on the hatching success of Streptocephalus cafer (Anostraca) dormant eggs from temporary wetlands in an arid environment. Both temperature and light altered hatching success, with emergent effects evident. Light caused a significant threefold increase in hatching success overall, while temperature effects were non‐linear, with hatching optimised at 27°C, and especially under light conditions. These results are discussed within the context of shifting climates and disturbances to temporary wetland ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Permo‐Carboniferous–Lower Jurassic Karoo succession in the Central Kalahari Karoo Sub‐basin of Botswana is largely confined to the subsurface, and contains coal, coalbed methane and groundwater resources, similar to other Karoo strata throughout southern Africa. Characterization of the stratigraphic architecture (i.e., spatiotemporal stacking character of sedimentary facies) is essential for various aspects of subsurface resource prediction (e.g., resource parameters; reservoir architecture; mining feasibility). This study uses sedimentary facies analysis on borehole cores from central Botswana and sequence stratigraphic principles to resolve large‐scale depositional style changes during the evolution of the greater Kalahari Karoo Basin in southwestern Gondwana. The results show that changes in the Karoo stratigraphic architecture define two, large‐scale overall fining‐upward depositional sequences (i.e., Lower and Upper Karoo) that are marked by regional subaerial unconformities. These regionally mappable depositional sequences contain pairs of high‐ to low‐amalgamation units, which are typified by stacked, multistorey sandstone bodies, succeeded by finer grained units that are sometimes rich in coal (e.g., the Dukwi‐Makoro‐Kamotaka vs. the Morupule‐Serowe‐Tlhabala formations in the Lower Karoo; the lower versus upper Mosolotsane‐Ntane formations in the Upper Karoo). The large‐scale depositional style changes, reflecting base‐level fluctuations and variation in the balance between accommodation and sediment supply, resulted from climatic changes (e.g., Permo‐Carboniferous deglaciation), tectonic events (e.g., regional pre‐Mosolotsane uplift event), and marine incursions. The latter is documented, for the first time, via the marine‐influenced ichnofauna in the uppermost Ecca Group. Further refining this initial sequence stratigraphic framework for the Botswanan Karoo will require acquisition of radioisotopic dates (e.g., U–Pb zircon ages) and modern seismic reflection data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the years, climate change and variability have led to a substantial decline in agricultural productivity in both developing and developed countries. Small-scale farmers are particularly at risk. The responses of farmers to climate change and variability are often dependent on their perceptions of climate change. Therefore, it is important to understand the nature of adaptation strategies that are feasible and practised at farm level. Despite this need, in some developing countries such as Botswana, there is a dearth of studies that use mixed research methods to critically analyse farmers' perceptions of climate change and their adaptation strategies. This study uses empirical data collected from farming households in the Ngamiland East region of Botswana to (i) analyse the perceptions of small-scale farmers regarding climate change, (ii) analyse small-scale farmers' adaptation strategies to climate change, and (iii) determine constraints faced by farmers in adapting to climate change and variability. The results show that there is a direct relationship between the farmers' adaptation strategies and education. Unlike findings from other studies, the results of the study show that there is no significant relationship between gender and farmers' adaptation strategies. The results verify that there is high heterogeneity characterising the case studies, making adaptation studies case-specific. Farmers in the Ngamiland region are faced with several challenges in their attempt to adapt to climate change. Chief among the constraints is the lack of financial resources and lack of appropriate skills. The government should empower the farmers through provision of subsidies and skills training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The impacts of climate change on surface water, waterborne disease, and human health remain a growing area of concern, particularly in Africa, where diarrheal disease is one of the most important health threats to children under 5 years of age. Little is known about the role of surface water and annual flood dynamics (flood pulse) on waterborne disease and human health nor about the expected impact of climate change on surface-water-dependent populations. Methods and findings: Using the Chobe River in northern Botswana, a flood pulse river—floodplain system, we applied multimodel inference approaches assessing the influence of river height, water quality (bimonthly counts of Escherichia coli and total suspended solids [TSS], 2011–2017), and meteorological variability on weekly diarrheal case reports among children under 5 presenting to health facilities (n = 10 health facilities, January 2007–June 2017). We assessed diarrheal cases by clinical characteristics and season across age groups using monthly outpatient data (January 1998–June 2017). A strong seasonal pattern was identified, with 2 outbreaks occurring regularly in the wet and dry seasons. The timing of outbreaks diverged from that at the level of the country, where surface water is largely absent. Across age groups, the number of diarrheal cases was greater, on average, during the dry season. Demographic and clinical characteristics varied by season, underscoring the importance of environmental drivers. In the wet season, rainfall (8-week lag) had a significant influence on under-5 diarrhea, with a 10-mm increase in rainfall associated with an estimated 6.5% rise in the number of cases. Rainfall, minimum temperature, and river height were predictive of E. coli concentration, and increases in E. coli in the river were positively associated with diarrheal cases. In the dry season, river height (1-week lag) and maximum temperature (1- and 4-week lag) were significantly associated with diarrheal cases. During this period, a 1-meter drop in river height corresponded to an estimated 16.7% and 16.1% increase in reported diarrhea with a 1- and 4-week lag, respectively. In this region, as floodwaters receded from the surrounding floodplains, TSS levels increased and were positively associated with diarrheal cases (0- and 3-week lag). Populations living in this region utilized improved water sources, suggesting that hydrological variability and rapid water quality shifts in surface waters may compromise water treatment processes. Limitations include the potential influence of health beliefs and health seeking behaviors on data obtained through passive surveillance. Conclusions: In flood pulse river—floodplain systems, hydrology and water quality dynamics can be highly variable, potentially impacting conventional water treatment facilities and the production of safe drinking water. In Southern Africa, climate change is predicted to intensify hydrological variability and the frequency of extreme weather events, amplifying the public health threat of waterborne disease in surface-water-dependent populations. Water sector development should be prioritized with urgency, incorporating technologies that are robust to local environmental conditions and expected climate-driven impacts. In populations with high HIV burdens, expansion of diarrheal disease surveillance and intervention strategies may also be needed. As annual flood pulse processes are predominantly influenced by climate controls in distant regions, country-level data may be inadequate to refine predictions of climate—health interactions in these systems. Kathleen Alexander and colleagues determine the effects of river flood height, water quality and amount of suspended solids in river water in Botswana in response to climate change and weather variability and the resultant cases of diarrhoea in children under 5. Author summary: Why was this study done?: Diarrheal disease remains a persistent global health threat for children under 5 years of age, particularly in Africa. In river—floodplain systems, annual floods or flood pulses can occur, with extreme flooding and drought a common threat to local populations. We do not know how surface water dynamics influence diarrheal disease and human health or how climate change will affect populations dependent on surface water resources in these regions. What did the researchers do and find?: We conducted a study on the Chobe River floodplain system in northern Botswana, a system that floods annually and is the source of drinking water for 8 villages included in the study. We evaluated diarrheal outbreak patterns in children under 5 years of age (weekly, 2007–2017) and individuals of all ages (monthly, 1998–2017) reporting diarrheal disease at government health facilities (n = 10). Using multimodel inference approaches, we assessed how meteorology, river height, and water quality characteristics (2011–2017) were associated with reports of diarrheal disease in children under 5 years of age. Across individuals of all ages, diarrheal outbreaks occurred regularly in the wet and dry seasons. Season had an important influence on the type of diarrhea and age group of the patient. Increases in diarrheal case reports were closely tied to meteorology, flood recession, and decreases in surface water quality, with the highest number of cases occurring in the dry season. What do these findings mean?: In flood pulse river—floodplain systems, rapid changes in surface water quality may influence the ability of water treatment plants to provide safe drinking water. Climate change is expected to increase hydrological variability, further influencing the vulnerability of populations in this region. There is an urgent need to strengthen water infrastructure to address current and future environmental impacts that can influence the production of safe water. In populations with high HIV infection levels, public health focus may need to be extended to include other at-risk groups beyond children under five, such as HIV-infected individuals and others that may also be immunocompromised. As distant weather patterns influence local flood dynamics, use of country-level data may not be adequate to predict climate impacts on human health in these types of systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT The seasonal and interannual variability of the mid-tropospheric Botswana High and its relationships with various characteristics of rainfall and temperature over southern Africa are examined. This High typically forms in August and then strengthens and moves southward over southern Africa during the spring and summer. It also expands in zonal extent so that by March it is part of an anticyclonic ridge extending from the South Atlantic Convergence Zone eastwards over this ocean, across southern Africa and to the western Indian Ocean, with its greatest intensity in February. Its position is always to the south and southeast of the region of heavy precipitation across tropical southern Africa associated with the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ) and its meridional arm that passes through the eastern Congo Basin. Substantial interannual variability exists in the strength of the Botswana High. While the High is typically stronger (weaker) during El Niño (La Niña) events, there are also a number of neutral El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) summers with large anomalies in the Botswana High. Neutral summers with an anomalously weak Botswana High are also characterized by a cyclonic anomaly extending from Angola south to the Antarctic and an anticyclonic anomaly over the South West Indian Ocean. These circulation patterns favour the development of tropical extratropical cloud bands, the main synoptic summer rainfall producing system, and the inflow of more moisture from the Indian Ocean towards the source of the cloud bands and hence increased rainfall. Roughly, the reverse circulation anomalies occur during neutral summers with anomalously large values of the Botswana High. Relationships are also found between the Botswana High and dry spell frequency, maximum temperature, diurnal temperature range and the number of days with extreme temperatures during the summer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Good knowledge on the interactions between climatic variables and malaria can be very useful for predicting outbreaks and preparedness interventions. We investigated clinical malaria transmission patterns and its temporal relationship with climatic variables in Tubu village, Botswana. A 5-year retrospective time series data analysis was conducted to determine the transmission patterns of clinical malaria cases at Tubu Health Post and its relationship with rainfall, flood discharge, flood extent, mean minimum, maximum and average temperatures. Data was obtained from clinical records and respective institutions for the period July 2005 to June 2010, presented graphically and analysed using the Univariate ANOVA and Pearson cross-correlation coefficient tests. Peak malaria season occurred between October and May with the highest cumulative incidence of clinical malaria cases being recorded in February. Most of the cases were individuals aged >5 years. Associations between the incidence of clinical malaria cases and several factors were strong at lag periods of 1 month; rainfall (r = 0.417), mean minimum temperature (r = 0.537), mean average temperature (r = 0.493); and at lag period of 6 months for flood extent (r = 0.467) and zero month for flood discharge (r = 0.497). The effect of mean maximum temperature was strongest at 2-month lag period (r = 0.328). Although malaria transmission patterns varied from year to year the trends were similar to those observed in sub-Saharan Africa. Age group >5 years experienced the greatest burden of clinical malaria probably due to the effects of the national malaria elimination programme. Rainfall, flood discharge and extent, mean minimum and mean average temperatures showed some correlation with the incidence of clinical malaria cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change and adaptation have become major issues in contemporary tourism development and policy discussions, especially in southern Africa where the tourism industry is largely based on the natural environment and wildlife. Previous studies on tourism and climate change have mainly focused on the global north and snow-based winter tourism activities. This study aimed to fill the gap by examining tourism operators' perceptions of climate change in Kgalagadi South District, southwest Botswana, and looking at their adaptation strategies, if any. It was found that these operators were aware of the general impacts of climate change but most saw no impacts on the tourism industry and none recognised any impacts on their own operations. Most did, however, envisage challenges to future business growth and Botswana's tourism competitiveness. The perception that climate change did not currently have any impacts may explain why there were almost no adaptation strategies in place. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lake Ngami is the terminal portion of one of the Okavango Delta distributaries, the Xudum. Until 2004, it last received inflow in 1989 and had been dry ever since, with major consequences for the local population and ecology. In 2004, however, the lake received considerable inflow, despite flooding in other distributaries not being unusually extensive. Analysis of inundation maps revealed that, in 1997, a shift occurred in the distribution of floodwaters in the delta, with an increase in the inundated area of the Xudum distributary, whereas that of the neighbouring Thaoge decreased. The nature of the shift is such that the present situation is likely to continue in the future, but no progressive drying or flooding of the two distributaries can be expected other than that caused by climatic variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Numerous studies have shown that drought occurs in Botswana in association with most Pacific ENSO episodes. Using composite analysis, an attempt is made to identify characteristic differences between those episodes during which drought occurs and those in which it does not. The evolution of the Southern Oscillation index (SOI) and of SSTs in key sectors of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans during ENSO episodes between 1946 and 1992 is examined. The most pronounced contrast is in SSTs in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. For the "dry Botswana" composite, SST anomalies are predominantly positive throughout the latter half of the episode, when drought tends to occur. For the "wet Botswana" composite, SST anomalies are overwhelmingly negative in the Atlantic and generally negative or near normal in the Indian Ocean. Differences are also apparent in the seasonal evolution of the SOI and Pacific SSTs. In the Pacific there is weaker and less consistent warming in the wet Botswana composite than in the dry Botswana composite, especially in the central and western Pacific. Also, the SOI is less negative and the low index period is less persistent in the wet Botswana composite. Because the SOI measures atmospheric, rather than oceanic, response, this may imply a weaker atmospheric response and weaker atmosphere-ocean coupling during the Pacific ENSO episodes that do not evoke drought in Botswana. This, rather... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]