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The events of recent years indicate climate change in nature. Climate change could affect the lifetime of transport infrastructure. Changes in the temperature, humidity, and use of de‐icing material may stimulate the development of damages in road and bridge structures. According to Latvian Environment, Geology, and Meteorology Centre data, average air temperature values have increased by 0.7 °C (1981‐2010 compared to 1961‐1990 g). Road maintenance organizations need information on the actual weather conditions on each road: above the road pavement, on the surface, and below the surface. Sixtyfive meteorological stations on roads throughout Latvia's territory provide this information. This paper analyzes data from six road metrological stations obtained from 2001 to 2021. The results show that over the 20 years period, the average temperature determined nearby asphalt pavement of the road has increased by 1.4 C. This is because the road asphalt pavement heats more, and the temperature measured in its vicinity is higher and should be considered when modeling the development of damage to the transport infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By developing innovative solutions to social and environmental problems, sustainable ventures carry great potential. Entrepreneurship which focuses especially on new venture creation can be developed through education and universities, in particular, are called upon to provide an impetus for social change. But social innovations are associated with certain hurdles, which are related to the multi-dimensionality, i.e. the tension between creating social, environmental and economic value and dealing with a multiplicity of stakeholders. The already complex field of entrepreneurship education has to face these challenges. This paper, therefore, aims to identify starting points for the integration of sustainability into entrepreneurship education. To pursue this goal experiences from three different project initiatives between the partner universities: Lapland University of Applied Sciences, FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences and Turiba University are reflected and findings are systematically condensed into recommendations for education on sustainable entrepreneurship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores visualization-supported dialogues with water management and ecosystem stakeholders from four catchments in Sweden, Latvia, Germany and Poland. An interactive visualization tool was designed to present information regarding modelled effects of chosen future pathways including different measures that address ecosystem issues under present and future scenarios of land use and climate change, and estimated benefits and costs of the measures. This paper assesses if and how visualization-supported dialogues hinder or support key components of good governance of water and ecosystem management among expert stakeholders. We discuss challenges and opportunities related to the tool and dialogue design, and performance of dialogues. Results from a cross-case workshop indicate that the form and functionality of the tool contributes to participation, empowerment, accessibility and flexibility, while dialogue design is instrumental for encouraging trust and inclusion of local knowledge and competence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to analyze the environmental impact assessment of power energy projects in Latvia. Every industrial activity and procedure influences the environment and climate change: each to a lesser or greater extent. In Latvia, the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedure has been carried out for more than ten years, and during these years numerous impact assessments have been conducted. The main purpose of the EIA is to assess the possible impacts of the implementation of an intended activity, or planning document, on the environment and to consequently develop proposals for the prevention or minimization of negative effects. In turn, the project shall avert violation of the requirements specified in the regulatory enactments. Currently, particular global attention, including in Latvia, is being paid to two aspects of the energy crisis – energy dependency and climate change. The global experience has proven that with an increase in the consumption of energy, a deficiency of energy resources occurs. In this situation, public officials have increased the import of energy resources, rather than encourage a reduction of consumption. Consequently, the state becomes more dependent on imported energy resources. At the same time, scientists are researching alternative energy resources, and the development of new technology. Latvia is a country with limited resources. The development of the national economy is unthinkable without an increase in the production sector. In turn, the development of the production sector is connected with the intensification of production capacity and the resulting consequences to the environment. Design/methodology/approach – The paper takes the form of a literature review and a case study. Findings – The power industry in Latvia has acquired a stable position in the national economy. It is necessary to elaborate the common approach of EIA power projects. During the process of impact assessment, principles of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) should be implemented, which enhance the quality and efficiency of the EIA. The use of LCA principles in the process of the EIA will allow the assessment of the designed activities and environmental impact of proposed alternatives to have greater objectivity. Originality/value – The work concludes with suggestions on how to include the principles of LCA in the EIA procedure. This is to improve the impact assessment of energy projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global climate change impact has increased in recent decades and put urgency on implementing effective climate change mitigation (CCM) activities. Rewetting of drained peatlands is an acknowledged measure to reduce GHG emissions from organic soils in the agriculture and land use sectors. Under waterlogged conditions, decomposition of organic matter in peat decreases, and emissions of CO2 are reduced. Thus, the soil carbon stock is saved, and wet management of the site reactivates carbon sequestration. To reach CCM targets, the first rewetting and paludiculture trials have been implemented in Latvia. In this article, we review the current status of paludiculture in Latvia and evaluate the pros and cons of their wider implementation. The majority of paludiculture projects and pilot studies in Latvia have not been published so far and are reported here for the first time. Our assessment of paludiculture shows that trails on Alnus, Phalaris, Phragmites, Sphagnum, and Typha installed by the private enterprises have promising results for upcoming large-scale implementation. There are available areas for paludiculture in Latvia, but the current legislation and national framework policies (environment, agriculture, forest, and climate) do not fully support such activities yet and must be adapted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Green Deal is the European Union's latest expression of its ambition to become a world leader in addressing climate change (Kleinberga, 2020). Adaptation to climate change (CCh) is a key priority of the European Union (EU), exemplifi ed by the EU's efforts to become "the fi rst climate-neutral continent" (European Union, 2019) in the world by 2050. This article aims to analyse opportunities to increase consumer involvement in the context of waste sorting and climate change in Latvia, based on theoretical knowledge about consumer behaviour and empirical data analysis, to develop recommendations for marketing communication and consumer behaviour in the context of climate change content for waste management companies. There is a necessity to understand how to increase consumer involvement in waste-sorting due to the increasing amount of waste both in Latvia and the rest of the world. The following research methods have been used: the monographic method, secondary data analysis, the discourse analysis/coding method, the graphical method, and the qualitative method -- a focus group interview. The most signifi cant barriers that discourage consumers from sorting waste are the lack of infrastructure, the lack of information on how to sort waste properly and waste's environmental impact, as well as the complex system that allows for differences in waste-sorting between municipalities and even neighbourhoods in the same city. Recommendations were developed as a result of the research for waste management companies in terms of communication, NGOs on education, and information for consumers, businesses, and waste management companies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 21st century, urban agriculture renews and diversifies approaches to the practice within the context of urban regeneration, climate change risks, sustainable development and resource consumption balance problems. Influenced by the long historical evolution and intensification of various risks, food production in urban areas involves the widest multifunctionality to date. Therefore, the aim of this research is to identify the main functions of urban agriculture and to evaluate their significance in Latvia. The following tasks were set to achieve the aim: 1) to identify and classify functions of urban agriculture, 2) to analyse the performance and significance of functions in Latvia. Several methods were employed to perform tasks and achieve the aim: the monographic and descriptive methods for making a theoretical discussion; the analysis, synthesis and deduction methods for obtaining information, systematisation and classification of functions; a structured expert interview for rating and ranking functions and identifying interactions between them. The research identified 14 functions of urban agriculture, which were classified into 5 groups: political, economic, social, environmental and technological. The most significant functions of urban agriculture in Latvia are social (promotion of social cohesion and public health, education and maintaining traditions and values) and technological innovations. There are interactions between all functions, and support for urban sustainability, education, provision of ecosystem services and technological innovations have the strongest impact on other functions. Interactions of functions proved the multifunctionality of urban agriculture, which could be an important support tool to contributing to sustainable urban development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ice regime of rivers is considered a sensitive indicator of climate change. This paper summarises the results of research on the long-term changes in the ice regime parameters under changing climate conditions and their regional peculiarities in Latvia from 1945 to 2012. The ice cover duration on Latvian rivers has decreased during recent decades. The research results demonstrated that there is a positive trend as regards the formation of the ice cover and in 31.8% of the cases the trend is statistically significant at p < 0.05. As regards the breaking up of ice, there is a statistically significant negative trend in 93.2% of the cases at p < 0.05. This indicates an earlier ice break-up date, which in turn, displays a strong correlation with the increase of the air temperature. The same pattern applies to the reduction of the length of ice cover (a statistically significant trend in 86.4% of the cases at p < 0.05). In approximately 60% of the cases, there is a statistically significant reduction of the ice thickness. The estimated winter severity index indicates warmer winters over the last 20 years as well as regional differences in the west-east direction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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A phenological data set collected by citizen scientists from 1970 to 2018 in Latvia is presented, comprising almost 47 000 individual observations of eight taxonomical groups, in addition to agrarian activities and abiotic parameters, covering in total 159 different phenological phases. These original data published offline in annual issues of the Nature and History Calendar (in Latvian, Dabas un vēstures kalendārs) have been digitized, harmonized, and geo-referenced. Overall, the possible use of such data is extensive, as phenological data are excellent bioindicators for characterizing climate change and can be used for the elaboration of adaptation strategies in agriculture, forestry, and environmental monitoring. The data can also be used in cultural–historical research; for example, the database includes data on sugar beet and maize, the cultivation of which was imposed on collective farms during the Soviet period. Thus, such data are not only important in the Earth sciences but can also be applied to the social sciences. The data significantly complement current knowledge on European phenology, especially regarding northern regions and the temporal biome. The data here cover two climate reference periods (1971–2000; 1981–2010), in addition to more recent years, and are particularly important in monitoring the effects of climate change. The database can be considered the largest open phenological data set in the Baltics. The data are freely available to all interested at 10.5281/zenodo.3982086 (Kalvāne et al., 2020). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we augment the traditional travel cost approach with contingent behavior data for coastal recreation. The objective is to analyze the welfare implications of future changes in the conditions of the Baltic Sea due to climate change and eutrophication. Adding to the literature, we assess the symmetricity of welfare effects caused by improvements and deteriorations in environmental conditions for a set of quality attributes. Responses are derived from identical online surveys in Finland, Germany and Latvia. We estimate recreational benefits using linear and non-linear negative binomial random-effects models. The calculated annual consumer surpluses are considerably influenced by the magnitude of the environmental changes in the three countries. We also observe asymmetries in the effects of environmental improvements and deteriorations on the expected number of visits. In particular, the results indicate that deteriorations lead to larger or more significant impacts than improvements in the case of blue-green algal blooms and algae onshore for Finland, water clarity for Germany, and water clarity and blue-green algal blooms for Latvia. For the remaining attributes, the effects are ambiguous. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper analyses the use of reflectors for increasing the energy performance and output of solar thermal collectors in the Latvian climate conditions. The results of experiments carried out with and without reflectors have shown that for these purposes the economically feasible reflectors which are widely available in Latvia can be employed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fast growing hybrid poplars (Populus spp.) could be successfully used for bioenergy as well as wood production. Productivity of clones had been studied in Baltic States recently, however, little is known about the impact of weather conditions on poplar height growth, thus the potential effect of climate change. Therefore, the aim of this study was to characterize the intra-annual height growth of hybrid poplar clones in Latvia. Height increment of 12 hybrid poplar clones was measured on average with an 11-day interval in the first vegetation season in 2016. Annual shoot height was on average 81.0 ± 6.8 cm, significantly (p < 0.001) depending on the poplar clone. Use of long (0.5 m) instead of short (0.3 m) cuttings leaded to larger annual height increment during the year of establishment of the plantation. From June to September the mean growth intensity was 10 to 15 mm day-1. The trend of height growth intensity, described by Gompertz model, indicated that the poplar clones with largest height had relatively fast increase of the growth intensity from June to July. Changes of growth intensity was linked both with the temperature and sum of precipitation. This tendency was not so pronounced for clones with largest height increment, emphasizing the importance of the phenotypic plasticity in selection of clones for plantations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial subsurface drainage systems are a common water management practice to remove excess water from agricultural land in the Baltic and Nordic countries. Unfortunately, these systems also serve as nutrient transport pathways from agricultural fields to downstream waterbodies. The objective of this study was to determine the status of subsurface drainage water in the context of implementation of the European Union (EU) Water Framework Directive (WFD) and EU Nitrate Directive (ND), to investigate the impact of hydrology and mineral fertilizer application on nutrient losses through subsurface drainage systems and to evaluate the possible effects of climate change on drainage and nutrient loss. This research was conducted from 1995 through 2013 at the agricultural run-off–monitoring sites in Berze and Mellupite. Continuous-flow measurement data and composite water samples were collected on a monthly basis for assessment of total nitrogen (TN), nitrate–nitrogen (NO3–N) and total phosphorus (TP) in drainage water. Results from the study indicated that the mean annual NO3–N concentration was slightly below the threshold level defined by ND, while TN concentrations exceeded the threshold level for good chemical status of water according to WFD. Differences in TN losses were mainly driven by the hydrologic behaviour at the study sites rather than by mineral fertilizer application rates, whereas TP losses under similar application rates were affected by open inlets for surface water accumulation. The comparison of meteorological data for the research period (1995–2013) with the long-term mean (1950–1994) showed a pronounced evidence of climate change. The mean annual precipitation amount has increased at both Berze and Mellupite monitoring sites by 36 mm and 42 mm, respectively, compared to the long-term mean for 1950–1994. Meanwhile, the mean annual temperature during the research period was 7.3°C for Berze and 6.4°C for Mellupite, which is 1.4°C and 0.6°C warmer than long-term mean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimation of both the frequency and variation of spring floods is a key issue for the assessment and management of flood risks. Changes in river floods in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania have been investigated in few national studies. However, there are no studies of the changes of flood patterns by using a common methodology for the rivers of this region. In this study flood pattern changes in the rivers of the Baltic countries were estimated applying trend and frequency analysis for the periods of 1922–2010, 1922–1960, 1961–2010 and 1991–2010, i.e. for the whole spring flood data sets, periods before and after 1960 (this year was considered as the beginning of the remarkable climate change), as well as for the two past decades. A comparative study of five probability distributions was performed in order to estimate which distribution at best represents statistical characteristics of the flood data. The results showed that maximum discharges of spring floods decreased over the whole studied period. Only some insignificant positive trends of maximum discharges were found in the last time period in continental and transitional rivers. Generalized extreme value distribution provided the best approximation to the maximum discharge data series of the rivers of Baltic countries for the whole observation period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

– Strategy of the European Union in efficient energy usage demands to have a higher proportion of renewable energy in the energy market. Since heat pumps are considered to be one of the most efficient heating and cooling systems, they will play an important role in the energy consumption reduction in buildings aimed to meet the target of nearly zero energy buildings set out in the EU Directive 2010/31/EU. Unfortunately, the declared heat pump Coefficient of Performance (COP) corresponds to a certain outdoor temperature (+7 °C), therefore different climate conditions, building characteristics and settings result in different COP values during the year. The aim of this research is to investigate the Seasonal Performance factor (SPF) values of air-to-water heat pump which better characterize the effectiveness of heat pump in a longer selected period of time, especially during the winter season, in different types of residential buildings in Latvian climate conditions. Latvia has four pronounced seasons of near-equal length. Winter starts in mid-December and lasts until mid-March. Latvia is characterized by cold, maritime climate (duration of the average heating period being 203 days, the average outdoor air temperature during the heating period being 0.0 °C, the coldest five-day average temperature being −20.7 °C, the average annual air temperature being +6.2 °C, the daily average relative humidity being 79 %). The first part of this research consists of operational air-to-water heat pump energy performance monitoring in different residential buildings during the winter season. The second part of the research takes place under natural conditions in an experimental construction stand which is located in an urban environment in Riga, Latvia. The inner area of this test stand, where air-to-water heat pump performance is analyzed, is 9 m2 . The ceiling height is 3 m, all external wall constructions (U = 0.16 W/(m2K)) have ventilated facades. To calculate SPF, the experimental stand is equipped with sensors which provide measurements for electricity consumption and gained heat energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The long-term annual regime of shallow groundwater levels is analysed in two different time periods according to the dominance of continental and oceanic air masses in Latvia. Observed and modelled long-term mean monthly groundwater levels for the reference period (1961-1990) and a future period (2070-2100) are transformed into relative values and the contours are derived for each month of the year. In both periods, the main difference between the mildly oceanic western coastal part of Latvia and the continental eastern part is the pattern of the winter regime which responds differently to snowmelt. In the coastal areas, where the degree of climatic continentality is low, groundwater levels during the winter are higher than those areas in the inland eastern part of the country. From May to September, there is only temporal difference between the groundwater levels in those two parts of Latvia. There are significant differences of relative groundwater levels between reference and future periods during the winter months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trends in phytoplankton monitoring data (1976-2008) from the Gulf of Riga were investigated and linked to environmental factors. Annual means of spring phytoplankton biomass correlated to phosphorus input from land and shifts between diatoms and dinoflagellates were attributed to potential Si limitation and time of sampling relative to the spring phytoplankton succession. The summer phytoplankton biomass, which more than doubled over the study period, was related to the abundance of summer copepods that similarly declined. Cyanobacterial blooms proliferated in summer and the proportion of diatoms similarly declined when the winter-spring inorganic N/P ratio was low. The chlorophyte proportion in summer increased over the study period, and this was linked to increasing temperatures favoring their higher growth rates. The dinoflagellate proportion appeared to decrease with temperatures above a threshold of 15.5°C. Although nutrient inputs and their ratios are important factors for the phytoplankton community, this study suggests that climate change and overfishing could be equally important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Do apartment owners in Bulgaria and Latvia carry out energy-saving practices in their homes, and what are the justifications thereof? Do they relate these practices to climate change or to their environmental knowledge? These are the main questions investigated in this research. Data are drawn from a qualitative survey of dwellers' renovation activities and the motivations thereof. Results indicate that the poor conditions of multi-apartment buildings and the feeling of being cold or uncomfortable are sufficient levers driving energy-related renovations in privately-owned apartments. Environmental concern is never expressed as a lever for undertaking renovation, either in Bulgaria or in Latvia and there exist some scepticism and misunderstanding concerning climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heikkilä, M. & Seppä, H. 2010: Holocene climate dynamics in Latvia, eastern Baltic region: a pollen-based summer temperature reconstruction and regional comparison. Boreas, Vol. 39, pp. 705-719. 10.1111/j.1502-3885.2010.00164.x. ISSN 0300-9483. A pollen-based summer temperature ( T) reconstruction reveals the Holocene climate history in southeastern Latvia and contributes to the limited understanding of past climate behaviour in the eastern sector of northern Europe. Notably, steady climate warming of the early Holocene was interrupted c. 8350-8150 cal. yr BP by the well-known 8.2 ka cold event, recorded as a decrease of 0.9 to 1.8 °C in T. During the Holocene Thermal Maximum, c. 8000-4000 cal. yr BP, the reconstructed summer temperature was ∼2.5-3.5 °C higher than the modern reconstructed value, and subsequently declined towards present-day values. Comparison of the current reconstruction with other pollen-based reconstructions in northern Europe shows that the 8.2 ka event is particularly clearly reflected in the Baltic region, possibly as a result of distinct climatic and ecological gradients and the sensitivity of the vegetation growth pattern to seasonal temperature change. The new reconstruction also reveals that the Holocene Thermal Maximum was warmer in Latvia than in central Europe and Fennoscandia. In fact, a gradient of increasing positive temperature anomalies is detected from northernmost Fennoscandia towards the south and from the Atlantic coast in Norway towards the continental East European Plain. The dynamics of the temperate broadleaved tree species Tilia and Quercus in Latvia and adjacent northern Europe during the mid-Holocene give complementary information on the multifaceted climatic and environmental changes in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) is predicted to decrease its abundance in the Eastern Baltic region as a result of climatic changes, and this process is already explicit at the southern limit of species lowland distribution. Still, there are uncertainties about the growth potential of Norway spruce within the region due to the plasticity of local populations. In this regard, an assessment of regional weather–growth responses, assuming a nonlinearity of the ecological relationship, can aid in the clarification of uncertainties regarding growth. Nonlinear regional weather–growth relationships for Norway spruce were assessed based on tree-ring widths from 22 stands spreading from Southern Finland to Northern Germany using dendrochronological methods and a generalized additive mixed model. Temporal and spatial stationarity of local linear weather–growth relationships was evaluated. Considering the drought sensitivity of Norway spruce, meteorological variables related to the summer moisture regime were the main predictors of radial increment, though conditions in winter and spring had complementary effects. Generally, the linear weather–growth relationships were spatially and temporary nonstationary, with some exceptions in Poland and Northern Germany. Explicit local specifics in the linear weather–growth relationships, which are common in the marginal parts of species' distribution, were observed in Estonia, Latvia, and Poland. The estimated regional weather–growth relationships were mostly nonlinear, implying disproportional responses to climatic changes, particularly to intensifying drought conditions across the studied climatic gradient. Still, the responses to winter temperature suggested that warming might contribute to growth. The estimated linear and nonlinear growth responses indicate strict limitation by drought conditions, implying reductions of increment due to climatic changes southward from Latvia, suggesting the necessity for proactive management. Nevertheless, in the northern part of the analyzed region, the projected climatic changes appear favorable for growth of Norway spruce in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]