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Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) is an ecologically sensitive, cost-effective, and locally adaptive climate adaptation strategy to strengthen the climate resilience of vulnerable communities. While many studies on EbA have been conducted in rural and mountainous regions or within the natural sciences realm, there is a lack of comprehensive research that assesses how urban EbA measures have been incorporated into existing policies and plans in Global South, including in Nepal. Ecosystem-based adaptation is in the early stages of its establishment as a fundamental component to address climate adaptation and sustainable development in urban environments. Accordingly, effective integration strategies, challenges, potential focal areas, and entry points have yet to be extensively studied. To address the literature gap, this paper analyses the types of EbA interventions and the extent of urban EbA integration within Nepal's climate, urban, and sectoral policies and plans. Direct content analysis and a qualitative scoring system were used to evaluate the plan components and assess the level of EbA integration. The findings indicate that the policies and plans recognise the importance of conserving, enhancing, and managing ecosystems for climate change adaptation, and EbA measures are mainly included in action-oriented sections. However, the results also reveal inadequate EbA integration, particularly in the information base, vision and objectives, and implementation aspects. The implementation component notably lacks comprehensive provisions for budget allocation, responsible authorities, definite timelines, and clear roadmaps. The breakdown of EbA integration in the policies and plans suggests that climate and urban plans substantially integrate urban EbA measures, but discrepancies exist with climate and urban policies and sectoral policies and plans. These findings collectively emphasise a pressing need to enhance the recognition and integration of urban EbA measures within policy frameworks with a view towards strengthening climate resilience and mitigating climate-related hazards in urban environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quantifying the extent of change in climatic and hydrological variables in the past and the future is essential for climate change-resilient development, especially in the climate change sensitive region of Nepal. This paper analyzed future climatic trends and extremes, historical hydrological extremes and their linkage with historical precipitation extremes, and discussed the impacts of climate change on various sectors in the less-studied Small and Medium-sized Eastern River Basins (SMERB) of Nepal. Applying an ensemble of five Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6) global climate models (GCMs), we evaluated 10 precipitation and 13 temperature extreme indices using Climpact2 for the historical (1979–2020), near-future (2021–2045), mid-future (2046–2070) and far-future (2071–2100) under two Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP), SSP245 and SSP585. Hydrological extreme indices were assessed using Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration tool. Projected climate revealed significant increase (9–73%) in annual and seasonal rainfall except winter; frequent intense rainfall extremes but prolonged dry spells; significant increasing minimum and maximum temperature trends (0.4–5 °C); rise in extreme heat events; increasing minimum and maximum discharge extreme trends in most hydrological stations; as well as strong association between maximum 1 day precipitation (Rx1day) and 1 day max flow for all stations. Growing dry periods but intense rainfall in few wet days, coupled with warming pattern all-over SMERB with frequent extreme events indicate high risk for future climate-related disasters. The harsher climate will potentially have damaging implications, especially in climate-induced disasters, food security, and water and sanitation infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main theme of this paper is to investigate the socio-economic impacts of climate change and adaptation; by comparing the losses with and without land reallocation for major staple foods as a key strategy of climate change adaptation in the farming system. In doing so, a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model for Nepal has been developed, incorporating the allocation of land for several agricultural crops, including the major staple foods, with specification of a nested set of constant elasticity of transformation (CET) functional forms. The set of land transformation elasticities facilitates switching from one crop to another; based on their agronomic characteristics and degree of climate change impacts. Using Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) data and Living Standard Survey (LSS) data, a social accounting matrix (SAM) for Nepal is developed and used to simulate three scenarios of climate change and land reallocation. The simulation results in the long run depict farmers as more likely to use land for crops that are comparatively less impacted by climate change, such as paddy. The results further show that land reallocation reduces the income inequality and poverty among rural and urban households by significantly controlling the income losses of marginal farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sixth Assessment Report of Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has highlighted the urgency of accelerated climate actions harnessing synergies and minimizing trade-offs with various SDG. This calls for a clear understanding of linkages between climate goals and other SDGs at national level for formulating synergistic policies and strategies and developing different sectoral programs and coherent cross-sectoral policies. This is even more important for least developed countries such as Nepal where these linkages are less understood and development challenges are multifaceted. In this context, this paper aims to evaluate potential synergies and trade-offs among selected SDGs and their associated targets in Nepal in a linear pairwise comparison. Synergies and trade-offs related to climate action (SDG 13), access to energy (SDG 7), sustainable consumption and production (SDG 12), and life on land (SDG 15) have been evaluated using historical data for the period from 1990 to 2018 employing a mixed methods approach. Network analysis to map the conceptual linkages between the SDGs and their targets was combined with the advance sustainability analysis (ASA) to quantitatively evaluate the synergy and trade-offs between SDGs. The results illustrate the presences of a continual trade-off between emission reductions targets of SDG 13 with per capita energy consumption and share of renewable energy of SDG 7, land use for agricultural production target of SDG 12, and forest area target of SDG 15. This indicates that climate action is strongly interlinked with GHG emissions from economic activities and energy consumption. The results of the study represent a valuable input for the policy makers, supporting coherent and sustainable development planning as Nepal plans to graduate to a middle-income country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper calls for a more critical analysis of implicit social values in time-based projections of transformative change in climate change policy in developing countries. The paper argues that transformative change is a form of socio-technical imaginary, in which contemporary visions of social order influence supposedly technical, and apolitical policies and timelines. To analyse these imaginaries, the paper applies the framework of 'technologies of futuring', or the processes in which projections about the future are imbued with implicit values, to different theories of change used to propose responses to climate change in Nepal. The paper shows that projections of future change are linked to assumptions about physical risks and social agency that reflect different, and contestable, worldviews. This chapter concludes that discussions about transformative change need to make assumptions about risk and society more transparent when proposing urgent deadlines based on assumptions about the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the changing climate, its impact, and the diversified practices of agropastoral adaption by a mountain community of Nepal. The findings reveal that there is an unswerving link between the changes in climate and their impact on the community and its adaptation options. The vulnerability and risk induced by the climate change has threatened the agropastoral subsistence, the sociocultural and economic structure, and the food sovereignty of the Loba community of Mustang district of Nepal and made them experience unanticipated complications in livelihood. In a changing climate, the community has attuned and restructured its adaptive strategy with diversified practices of collective labour in a traditional agropastoral system of landholding, mystical connectivity and seasonal relocation as an adaptive response ensuring the shared sustenance of the com munity. The challenge of climate change began long ago; it will persevere and be long- lasting. Hence, this paper argues for the need for a prudent adoption of measures to maintain an environmentally suitable agropastoral system of liveli hood well-being. Beyond enhancing community capacity and climate resilience, it is necessary to streamline and readjust indigenous sociocultural institutions by expanding their adaptive capacity, while recognizing the cultural dimensions grounded in systems of meanings and relationships and the way people and their culture experience and respond to exceptional climatic changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptation needs in high mountain communities are increasingly well documented, yet most efforts to address these needs continue to befall mountain people who have contributed little to the problem of climate change. This situation represents a contravention of accepted norms of climate justice and calls attention to the need for better understanding of prospects for externally resourced adaptation initiatives in high mountain areas. In response, this paper examines the architecture of formal adaptation support mechanisms organized through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and how such mechanisms might help to meet adaptation needs in high mountain communities. It outlines key global adaptation initiatives organized through the UNFCCC, clarifies idealized linkages between these global adaptation initiatives and meeting local adaptation needs, and evaluates actual progress in connecting such support with discrete adaptation needs in the upper Manaslu region of Nepal. The paper then critically examines observed shortcomings in matching adaptation support organized through the UNFCCC with local adaptation needs, including complications stemming from the bureaucratic nature of formal adaptation support mechanisms, the intervening role of the state in delivering aid, and the ways in which these complexities intersect with the specific socio-cultural contexts of mountain communities. It concludes by highlighting several prospects for increasing the quantity and quality of adaptation support to mountain communities. These opportunities are considered alongside several salient concerns about formal adaptation support mechanisms in an effort to provide a well-rounded assessment of the prospects for planned adaptations in high mountain communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conflicts over natural resources are likely to escalate under changing socio-economic contexts and climate change. This paper tests the effectiveness of what we term Adaptive Learning and Deliberation (ALD) in understanding and addressing conflicts over the local management of forests and water, drawing on experimental work in Nepal. Based on a three-year action research project, the paper offers policy and practical insights on how complex and protracted conflicts can be addressed through the researcher-facilitated enquiry and deliberative processes that form the core of the ALD approach. The conflicts included in the study are a result of diverse environmental, political and economic factors. We analyze experimental practices in two sites, where our research team facilitated the ALD process, gathering evidence in relation to conflicting institutional issues, all of which was then fed into researcher-mediated and evidence-informed deliberations on conflict management. The analysis shows that the ALD process was helpful in rearranging local institutions to accommodate the interests of the conflicting groups and, to some extent, to challenge some of the underlying exclusionary provisions of forest and water institutions in Nepalese society. We also identify three key limitations of this approach – transaction costs, the need for strong research and facilitative capacity within the research team, and researchers' engagement with the conflicting stakeholders. Key policy insights Natural resource-based conflicts are intensifying in Nepal in recent years, due to heavy reliance of people on these resources for livelihoods, poor governance, and protection-oriented policies. Improved ways to facilitate cooperation among conflicting stakeholders are needed, as standard methods have often failed to address socio-environmental drivers of conflicts. The ALD approach can potentially help mitigate conflict and foster cooperation in natural resource management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the long-term monthly, seasonal, and annual trends of climatic variables, snow cover extent, and discharge in Langtang Basin, Central Himalayas. The Mann-Kendall test with variance corrections is used to detect the trend, and Sen's slope estimator is calculated to quantify the trend. The innovative trend analysis, a graphical method for trend detection, is applied, and the results are compared. The snow cover extent for the study area was derived from moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite images. The result suggests that there is a significant increasing trend for mean temperature and minimum temperature, while no remarkable trend is identified for maximum temperature. Similarly, precipitation shows a rising trend for all seasons except winter. Snow cover is a major source of fresh water for the region and is depleting at an alarming rate. River discharge, augmented by snowmelt and high rainfall, is upsurging. In summary, this study portrays the links of climatic variables with snow cover and river discharge. The outcome of this study will be useful for understanding the climate change status in the Central Himalayas and sustainably managing the watershed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the practice of Community Based Adaptation (CBA) to climate change in countries like Nepal is growing, the literature has pointed out the need for more research in order to test the effectiveness of CBA in reaching the most vulnerable households and its wider applicability. This paper reviews a Community Adaptation Plan (CAP) piloted and implemented in Nepal. The study involved interviews and interaction with a wide range of relevant stakeholders, in order to map their perceptions on the effectiveness of CAP. The findings show that the CAP process and implementation provided for recognition of the role of local communities in climate change adaptation, and ensured their participation and leadership in the planning process. However, due to issues related to the local structure and governance of community-based organizations, the benefits of climate change adaptation support were enjoyed mostly by elites and powerful individuals. The paper suggests that more inclusive approaches are needed, so as to ensure the planning and governance of local institutions is more accountable and responsive to vulnerable households. This could be achieved by devolving decision-making power to the vulnerable households and ensuring inclusive provisions in membership, representation and resource allocation that encourage more equitable sharing of benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• It is critical to theorize equity in the context of equitable resilience. • Predefined visions of equity and transformative change hide contextual and intersectional agencies and experiences of risk. • In Jumla, Nepal, state-led interventions define equity as "equal distribution" that do not acknowledge social differences such as caste and gender. • Yet, focusing on caste and gender as indicators of marginalization also overlook contextual and dynamic influences on risk. • Equitable resilience requires recognizing intersectional inequalities and local agency, not predefined indicators of risk and vulnerability. Equitable resilience is an increasing focus of development policy, but there is still insufficient attention to how the framings of equity itself shape what, and who, is targeted through development efforts. Universalistic assumptions about climate risk or social marginalization can define equity in ways that hide dynamic and intersectional influences on what constitutes risk to whom under different circumstances. This paper investigates the implications of two different equity framings for resilience in Jumla District, western Nepal. Drawing on more than one hundred household surveys plus in-depth qualitative interviews in six villages, we find that state-led efforts to present post-civil war development as the "equal distribution" of roads and infrastructure, agricultural commercialization, and protection against systemic climate risk fail to reflect local experiences of risk, which are often expressed in terms of social exclusion rather than vulnerability to climate change. Yet, simultaneously, other efforts at building resilience that use caste and gender as indicators of social marginalization overlook how transitions in livelihoods and individual agency have changed vulnerability contexts for many people, or the increasing vulnerability to climate change of more landed farmers. The paper urges more critical attention to how normative framings of equity shape what, and for whom is considered equitable resilience, including assumptions about transformative change from analysts themselves. Representing risks and vulnerability in terms of socially marginalized groups alone might deny the dynamic, intersectional, and contextual interconnection of risks and social agency; and might impose unhelpful subjectivities of their own. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Adaptation appears to be regarded as a panacea in policy circles to reduce the risk of impending crises resulting from contemporary changes, including but not restricted to climate change. Such conceptions can be problematic, generally assuming adaptation as an entirely positive and non-conflictual process. The purpose of this paper is to challenge such uncritical views, drawing attention to the conflictual nature of adaptation, and propose a theoretical framework facilitating the identification and analysis of conflicts in adaptation. Design/methodology/approach: The study is based on case study research using first-hand narratives of adaptation in Nepal and the Maldives collected using qualitative interviews, participant observation and document analysis. Findings: The findings identify conflicts between actors in, and around, communities that are adapting to changes. These conflicts can be categorized along three dimensions: qualitative differences in the type of conflict, the relative position of conflicting actors and the degree of manifestation of the conflict. Originality/value: The three-dimensional Adaptation Conflict Framework facilitate analysis of conflicts in adaptation, allowing for a critical examination of subjectivities inherent in the adaptation discourses embedded in disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation research and policy. Such an inquiry is crucial for interventions supporting community adaptation to reduce disaster risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the 1990s, climate change impact discourse has highlighted potential for large scale violent conflicts. However, the role of climate stresses on local conflicts over natural resources, the role of policies and adaptation in these conflicts, and opportunities to enhance cooperation have been neglected. These gaps are addressed in this paper using evidence from participatory action research on 79 cases of local collective action over natural resources that experience conflicts in Bangladesh and Nepal. Climate trends and stresses contributed to just under half of these conflict cases. Nine factors that enable greater cooperation and transformation of conflict are identified. Participatory dialogue and negotiation processes, while not sufficient, changed understanding, attitudes and positions of actors. Many of the communities innovated physical measures to overcome natural resource constraints, underlying conflict, and/or institutional reforms. These changes were informed by improving understanding of resource limitations and indigenous knowledge. Learning networks among community organizations encouraged collective action by sharing successes and creating peer pressure. Incentives for cooperation were important. For example, when community organizations formally permitted excluded traditional resource users to access resources, those actors complied with rules and paid towards management costs. However, elites were able to use policy gaps to capture resources with changed characteristics due to climate change. In most of the cases where conflict persisted, power, policy and institutional barriers prevented community-based organizations from taking up potential adaptations and innovations. Policy frameworks recognizing collective action and supporting flexible innovation in governance and adaptation would enable wider transformation of natural resource conflicts into cooperation. Key policy insights Climate stresses, policy gaps and interventions can all worsen local natural resource conflicts. Sectoral knowledge and technical approaches to adaptation are open to elite capture and can foster conflicts. Many local natural resource conflicts can be resolved but this requires an enabling environment for participatory dialogue, external facilitation, flexible responses to context, and recognition of disadvantaged stakeholder interests. Transforming conflict to greater cooperation mostly involves social and institutional changes, so adaptation policies should focus less on physical works and more on enabling factors such as negotiation, local institutions, knowledge, and incentives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate variability and insufficient irrigation are primary constraints to stable and higher agricultural productivity and food security in Nepal. Agriculture is the largest global freshwater user, and integration of surface- and ground-water use is frequently presented as an strategy for increasing efficiency as well as climate change adaptation. However, conjunctive management (CM) planning often ignores demand-side requirements and a broader set of sustainable development considerations, including ecosystem health and economics of different development strategies. While there is generic understanding of conjunctive use, detailed technical knowhow to realize the CM is lacking in Nepal. This article presents a holistic framework through literature reviews, stakeholders consultations and expert interviews for assessing CM and implementation prospects from a systems-level perspective. We demonstrate the framework through a case study in Western Nepal, where climatic variability and a lack of irrigation are key impediments to increased agricultural productivity and sustainable development. Results show that knowledge of water resources availability is good and that of water demand low in the Western Terai. Additional and coordinated investments are required to improve knowledge gaps as well as access to irrigation. There is therefore a need to assess water resources availability, water access, use and productivity, to fill the knowledge gaps in order to pave pathways for CM. This paper also discusses some strategies to translate prospects of conjunctive management into implementation. • Customized framework development for assessing prospects for conjunctive management. • Conjunctive management status in western Nepal assessed by applying the framework. • Knowledge on water availability and demand are moderate and low, respectively. • Additional and coordinated investments required to improve access to irrigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides one of the first empirical studies that examine the impact of climate change adaptation practices on technical efficiency (TE) among smallholder farmers in Nepal. An adaptation index is used to explore the impact of farmers' adaptation on TE using the stochastic frontier analysis framework. Data for six districts of Nepal representing all three agro-ecological regions (terai, hill, and mountain) were collected from a focus group discussion, a stakeholder workshop and a household survey. The survey shows that about 91% of the farming households have adopted at least one practice to minimize the adverse impacts of climate change. Empirical results reveal that adaptation is an important factor explaining efficiency differentials among farming households. Those adopting a greater number of adaptation practices on a larger scale are, on average, found to be 13% more technically efficient than those adopting fewer practices on smaller scale. The empirical results also show that average TE is only 0.72, indicating that there are opportunities for farming households in Nepal to further improve productive efficiency, on average by 28%. Other important factors that explain variations in the productive efficiency across farming households include farmer's education level, irrigation facilities, market access, and social capital such as farmer's participations in relevant agricultural organizations and clubs. This study provides empirical evidence to policy makers that small scale adjustments made by farmers in response to climate change impacts are effective in improving farmers' efficiency in agriculture production. This indicates a need for farmers' involvement in climate change adaptation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The relationship that mountain communities have with global capitalism are complex, being mediated by a diverse topography and ecology, both of which provide opportunities for capital accumulation, while also isolating older, “pre‐capitalist” modes of production. This paper takes a case study valley from Nepal's eastern hills, tracing over two centuries of agrarian change and evolving interactions between “adivasi” and “semi‐feudal” economic formations with capitalism. In recent years, the expansion of markets, rising demand for cash, and climate stress have solidified migrant labour as a core component of livelihoods, and the primary mechanism of surplus appropriation from the hill peasantry. Through a focus on three altitudinal zones, however, it is demonstrated how the trajectory of this transformation, including the interactions with persisting pre‐capitalist formations, is mediated by both political–economic processes and the local agro‐ecological context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the factors that influence farmers' decision-making in adopting climate change adaptation strategies and how these adaptations impact on farm yields. We employ a simultaneous equations model to investigate the differential effects of adaptation on adapters and non-adapters. An endogenous switching mechanism is employed to account for selectivity bias. Based on a survey of 422 rice farmers in Nepal, our results show that farmers' education, access to credit and extension services, experience with climate change impacts such as drought and flood, information on climate change issues, belief in climate change and the need to adapt all variously determine their decision-making. We find that the adaptation strategies employed by farmers significantly increase rice yields. Furthermore, results indicate that both adapters and non-adapters would benefit from the adaptation of the identified strategies. This study, therefore, provides supportive evidence for policy makers to take into consideration farmers' existing knowledge and skills in adapting to climate change. The findings show that it is imperative to involve farmers in climate change adaptation planning processes if the full benefits of such policy action are to be realized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As one of the dominant large-scale mechanisms proposed to combat climate change, biodiversity loss, and rural poverty, REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) has added further complexity to the challenging governance of rights and resources in global forests. As REDD+ is commodifying carbon, concerns emerge about how carbon ownership and its rights can be accommodated into the existing framework that governs local forest resource rights. The Nepalese government has formally entered into REDD+ policy preparations, but it lacks clear legal provisions regarding key forest tenure rights such as carbon ownership, benefit sharing, and the political participation of community forest user groups from national to local. As a result, Nepal’s policy process points toward performance-based carbon forestry in a way that may undermine and weaken existing community tenure rights and forest tenure security. This paper discusses Nepal’s potential impacts of new REDD+ and carbon ownership arrangements on forest tenure security and community-based forest governance. In a threefold methodological approach, the paper presents three scenarios for a REDD+-oriented tenure reform within the existing framework and assesses their concerns through in-depth qualitative interviews with key stakeholders, representatives, and advocates of Nepal’s community forestry system, complemented by a review of government documents and academic literature of REDD+ lessons so far. The analysis identifies critical concerns for forest tenure security, state-community power relationships, and effective local institutions of the commons, and suggests that Nepal’s REDD+ process is taking place at a particularly consequential time for structural changes of the forest governance framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The implications of environmental change for migration are little understood. Migration as a response to climate change could be seen as a failure of in situ adaptation methods, or migration could be alternatively perceived as a rational component of creative adaptation to environmental risk. This paper frames migration as part of an adaptation response to climate change impacts to natural resource condition and environmental hazards. Thresholds will be reached by communities after which migration will become a vital component of an effective adaptation response. Such changes to migration patterns have the potential to undermine migration policy unless appropriate preparations are undertaken. This paper describes an approach to assist researchers to frame how climate change will influence migration by critically analysing how thresholds of fundamental change to migration patterns could be identified, primarily in relation to two case studies in Nepal and Thailand. Future policy for internal and international migration could be guided by the analysis of such thresholds of non-linear migration and resourced effectively to ensure that socio-economic and humanitarian outcomes are maximised. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review paper is designed to demonstrate how community forestry has played an important role in the livelihood improvement of poor people in the rural areas of Nepal. The Community Forestry Program in Nepal has been a successful model for participatory action oriented especially in environmental governance and community-based forest management in developing countries which encompasses well-defined policies, institutions and practices. The program addresses the twin goals of forest conservation on one hand and livelihood improvement on the other hand. It is well known that there is a great diversity among resource users in terms of access, use and control over community forestry but still it is playing a large role in improving livelihood, increasing forest resources and also mitigating climate change Promoting community forest management in Nepal can be an effective policy instrument for poverty eradication and improvement of overall living standards like in many developing countries. There is always a problem of capture of the benefits by the elites in each community, so increase in the level of awareness is always necessary to ensure the involvement of disenfranchised people where their needs are met, so giving access and management rights over forest resources to local communities is expected to enhance livelihoods and other benefits of these impoverished people Policy-makers, experts and the local communities should be involved in developing and improving the benefits obtained from community forestry for the benefits of local people. Some challenges still remain, including elite capture, social disparity, inequitable benefit-sharing and exclusion of poor and marginalized users faced by the community forestry, local users, government officials and other stakeholders which should be solved soon to show the profound impact of community forestry management, utilization and conservation on a sustainable basis [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Planning adaptation strategies in response to climate change (CC) can be a daunting task, especially in regions such as the Koshi Basin in the Himalayas, where CC impacts are still uncertain. This paper recommends targeting adaptation strategies by focusing on changes in variability between the past and future climates at smaller scales. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and the Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) are used for analysis. The results show: (a) higher maximum precipitation during monsoon and post-monsoon, and lower maximum precipitation during winter; (b) increase in precipitation and flows in the Trans-mountain region during all seasons, except for flows during monsoon; (c) increase in post-monsoon precipitation and routed flow volumes; (d) decrease in precipitation during winter and routed flow volumes in all the regions, except the Trans-mountain region; and (e) increase in frequency of high peak flows and decrease in baseflows.Editor Z.W. Kundzewicz Associate editor S. Kanae; [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Where power lies and how it is conceived in studies of governance and institutions is often not discussed. This is due to the ubiquitous nature of the topic. Power is shaped by a variety of institutional factors, including the architecture of governing structures, questions of scale and level, and access to key resources including knowledge and capital, among other factors. To date, there are relatively few tools available that allow policy makers, researchers, and development practitioners to render these power dynamics explicit and thus take steps to mitigate the potentially deleterious effects of power orientations. This paper proposes a methodology, multi-level stakeholder influence mapping (MSIM), for elucidating power dynamics between actors in complex system regimes. MSIM departs from existing power mapping techniques in that it relies on individual interviews conducted across multiple actor levels and utilizes a participatory mapping process for shared system boundary critique. MSIM was piloted in Nepal's agricultural climate change adaptation regime with actors from the central, regional, and local operational levels. The results suggest that without proper consideration of the role of power in agricultural adaptation regimes, the resulting interventions will likely be insufficient in catalyzing adaptation pathways and moderating the negative impacts of climate change. Furthermore, power analyses produced from the perspective of a single actor level or respondent type can risk sub optimization of adaptation outcomes and can misdirect the lobbying efforts of those agencies utilizing mapping outputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solving the existing energy crisis, alleviating poverty, and mitigating the potential impacts of climate change have garnered significant attention of policy makers in Nepal. In this context, this paper examines the causal relationships among energy consumption, pollution emission, and economic growth for Nepal employing time series econometric methodology. Both Johansen cointegration and ARDL (Autoregressive Distributed Lag) bounds tests suggest presence of two cointegrating vectors, one when energy consumption and the other when carbon emissions are used as dependent variables. The Granger causality tests suggest presence of long-run bidirectional causality running from energy consumption to carbon emission and vice-versa and a unidirectional causality running from economic growth to both carbon emissions and energy consumption. These findings imply that policies that boost energy consumption may not spur economic growth, rather are more likely to exert adverse effects on the environment. On the other hand, energy conservation and carbon emission reduction policies would not impede the long-run economic growth. Policies that focus on alternative energy may be an approach in favor of mitigating climate change impacts while protecting environmental health and without a cost to the country's long-run economic growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Over the last decade, the incidence of confirmed malaria has declined significantly in Nepal. The aim of this paper is to assess the spatio-temporal distribution of malaria and its association with climatic factors and vector control interventions in two high-risk districts of Nepal. Methods Hotspot analysis was used to visualize the spatio-temporal variation of malaria incidence over the years at village level and generalized additive mixed models were fitted to assess the association of malaria incidence with climatic variables and vector control interventions. Results Opposing trends of malaria incidence were observed in two high-risk malaria districts of eastern and far-western Nepal after the introduction of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs). The confirmed malaria incidence was reduced from 2.24 per 10,000 in 2007 to 0.31 per 10,000 population in 2011 in Morang district but increased from 3.38 to 8.29 per 10,000 population in Kailali district. Malaria hotspots persisted mostly in the same villages of Kailali district, whereas in Morang district malaria hotspots shifted to new villages after the introduction of LLINs. A 1° C increase in minimum and mean temperatures increased malaria incidence by 27% (RR =1.27, 95% CI =1.12-1.45) and 25% (RR =1.25, 95% CI =1.11-1.43), respectively. The reduction in malaria incidence was 25% per one unit increase of LLINs (RR =0.75, 95% CI =0.62-0.92). The incidence of malaria was 82% lower in Morang than in Kailali district (RR =0.18, 95% CI =0.11-0.33). Conclusions The study findings suggest that LLIN coverage should be scaled up to entire districts rather than high-incidence foci only. Climatic factors should be considered for malaria microstratification, mosquito repellents should be prescribed for those living in forests, forest fringe and foothills and have regular visits to forests, and imported cases should be controlled by establishing fever check posts at border crossings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to analyze the role of renewable energy technologies (RETs) such as biogas, improved cooking stoves (ICSs), micro hydro (MH) and solar power (SP) in helping rural communities in Nepal to adapt to climate change. The analysis considers the energy efficiency of different RETs as well as their socio-economic and environmental impacts. The efficient use of biomass in new technology, such as biogas and ICSs for cooking, has increased energy security and reduced the negative effects of traditional biomass usage. MH and SP systems are replacing candles and kerosene lamps, and are the most promising RET models for electricity generation in rural Nepal. The improved illumination from these technologies also produces better education, health, environments, and social harmony in rural communities. This study uses the Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning model (LEAP) model to develop a plan for long-term RETs use in Nepal, and specifically focuses on household energy use in rural areas. It assesses the role of biogas and ICSs in rural communities and climate change adaptation in Nepal, along with the potential role of MH and SP technologies. According to the LEAP analysis, the planned implementation of MH for 20-year long-term will result in the reduction of 2.553 million tons of CO2 emissions. Similarly SP, biogas, and ICSs will result in a reduction in CO2 emissions of 5.214 million tons, 35.880 million tons, and 7.452 million tons, respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background Malaria is still a priority public health problem of Nepal where about 84% of the population are at risk. The aim of this paper is to highlight the past and present malaria situation in this country and its challenges for long-term malaria elimination strategies. Methods Malariometric indicator data of Nepal recorded through routine surveillance of health facilities for the years between 1963 and 2012 were compiled. Trends and differences in malaria indicator data were analysed. Results The trend of confirmed malaria cases in Nepal between 1963 and 2012 shows fluctuation, with a peak in 1985 when the number exceeded 42,321, representing the highest malaria case-load ever recorded in Nepal. This was followed by a steep declining trend of malaria with some major outbreaks. Nepal has made significant progress in controlling malaria transmission over the past decade: total confirmed malaria cases declined by 84% (12,750 in 2002 vs 2,092 in 2012), and there was only one reported death in 2012. Based on the evaluation of the National Malaria Control Programme in 2010, Nepal recently adopted a long-term malaria elimination strategy for the years 2011-2026 with the ambitious vision of a malaria-free Nepal by 2026. However, there has been an increasing trend of Plasmodium falciparum and imported malaria proportions in the last decade. Furthermore, the analysis of malariometric indicators of 31 malaria-risk districts between 2004 and 2012 shows a statistically significant reduction in the incidence of confirmed malaria and of Plasmodium vivax, but not in the incidence of P. falciparum and clinically suspected malaria. Conclusions Based on the achievements the country has made over the last decade, Nepal is preparing to move towards malaria elimination by 2026. However, considerable challenges lie ahead. These include especially, the need to improve access to diagnostic facilities to confirm clinically suspected cases and their treatment, the development of resistance in parasites and vectors, climate change, and increasing numbers of imported cases from a porous border with India. Therefore, caution is needed before the country embarks towards malaria elimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides the results of semi-distributed positive degree-day (PDD) modelling for a glacierized river basin in Nepal. The main objective is to estimate the present and future discharge from the glacierized Langtang River basin using a PDD model (PDDM). The PDDM is calibrated for the period 1993-98 and is validated for the period 1999-2006 with Nash-Sutcliffe values of 0.85 and 0.80, respectively. Furthermore, the projected precipitation and temperature data from 2010 to 2050 are obtained from the Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, Norway, for the representative concentration pathway 4.5 (RCP4.5) scenario. TheWeather Research and Forecasting regional climate model is used to downscale the data from the Norwegian Earth System Model general circulation model. Projected discharge shows no significant trend, but in the future during the pre-monsoon period, discharge will be high and the peak discharge will be in July whereas it is in August at present. The contribution of snow and ice melt from glaciers and snowmelt from rocks and vegetation will decrease in the future: in 2040-50 it will be just 50% of the total discharge. The PDDM is sensitive to monthly average temperature, as a 2°C temperature increase will increase the discharge by 31.9%. Changes in glacier area are less sensitive, as glacier area decreases of 25% and 50% result in a change in the total discharge of -5.7% and -11.4%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy plays a crucial role in both climate change mitigation and adaptation in highly climate-vulnerable nations such as Nepal. This paper reviews various types of renewable energy technologies and their status, potential for adoption, relationship to climate change, and mitigative and adaptive roles in Nepal. Nepal has installed micro-hydro projects, solar power, improved cooking stoves, biogas technology, improved water mills, and wind energy to mitigate and adapt to climate change. There is a growing potential for renewable energy development in Nepal, such as hydropower, solar, wind energy, biogas, and improved cooking stoves. Roughly 70% of Nepal's energy consumption is generated from traditional energy sources while renewable energy accounts for approximately three percent. The gradual increase in the use of renewable energy has reduced greenhouse gas emissions and enhanced carbon sequestration. By adopting renewable energy technologies, Nepal has reduced emissions by 221,129 tCO 2 e from 2017 to 2018. Nepal's second Nationally Determined Contribution targets a 15% increase in national energy use from renewables with a reduction of 23% of CO 2 emissions by 2030 using biogas and improved cooking systems. Furthermore, a significant increase in the adoption of renewable energy has become a pivotal strategy in adaptation to climate change in social, health, and economic sectors resulting in time savings, alternative income sources, improved health and educational status, local job opportunities, and the promotion of social capital. The benefits of adapting to climate change and mitigating CO 2 emissions via renewable energy are significant at the local, national, and international levels. This study recommends that the government of Nepal focus work on energy policy reviews to address local energy demand and climate change issues by utilizing renewable energy resources at the local level, which has global implications. • Suitable, potential renewable energy technologies in Nepal. • The relationship between energy and climate change. • Relevant data on energy and climate change in tables and figures. • Social, economic, and environmental benefits of renewable energy. • Climate change adaptation and mitigation via renewable energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The detection of glacial lake change in the Himalayas, Nepal is extremely significant since the glacial lake change is one of the crucial indicators of global climate change in this area, where is the most sensitive area of the global climate changes. In the Himalayas, some of glacial lakes are covered by the dark mountains' shadow because of their location. Therefore, these lakes can not be detected by conventional method such as Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), because the reflectance feature of shadowed glacial lake is different comparing to the ones which are located in the open flat area. The shadow causes two major problems: 1) glacial lakes which are covered by shadow completely result in underestimation of the number of glacial lakes; 2) glacial lakes which are partly identified are considered to undervalue the area of glacial lakes. The aim of this study is to develop a new model, named Detection of Shadowed Glacial Lakes (DSGL) model, to identify glacial lakes under the shadow environment by using Advanced Space-borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data in the Himalayas, Nepal. The DSGL model is based on integration of two different modifications of NDWI, namely NDWI model and NDWI model. NDWI is defined as integration of the NDWI and slope analysis and used for detecting non-shadowed lake in the mountain area. The NDWI is proposed as a new methodology to overcome the weakness of NDWI on identifying shadowed lakes in highly elevated mountainous area such as the Himalayas. The first step of the NDWI is to enhance the data from ASTER 1B using the histogram equalization (HE) method, and its outcome product is named ASTER. We used the ASTER for calculating the NDWI and the NDWI. Integrated with terrain analysis using Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data, the NDWI can be used to identify the shadowed glacial lakes in the Himalayas. NDWI value of 0.41 is used to identify the glacier lake (NDWI ≥ 0.41), and 0.3 of NDWI is used to identify the shadowed glacier lake (NDWI ≤ 0.3). The DSGL model was proved to be able to classify the glacial lakes more accurately, while the NDWI model had tendency to underestimate the presence of actual glacial lakes. Correct classification rate regarding the products from NDWI model and DSGL model were 57% and 99%, respectively. The results of this paper demonstrated that the DSGL model is promising to detect glacial lakes in the shadowed environment at high mountains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global climate change is expected to result in greater variation in snow cover and subsequent impacts on land surface hydrology and vegetation production in the high Trans Himalayan region (THR). This paper examines how the changes in timing and duration of snow cover affect the spatio-temporal pattern of rangeland phenology and production in the region. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) 16-day normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data from 2000 to 2009 and concurrent snow cover, precipitation and temperature data were analyzed. In contrast to numerous studies which have suggested that an earlier start of the season and an extension of the length of the growing season in mid and higher latitude areas due to global warming, this study shows a delay in the beginning of the growing season and the peak time of production, and a decline in the length of growing season in the drier part of THR following a decline and a delay in snow cover. Soil moisture in the beginning of the growing season and consequent rangeland vegetation production in drier areas of the THR was found to be strongly dependent upon the timing and duration of snow cover. However, in the wetter part of the THR, an earlier start of season, a delay in end of season and hence a longer growing season was observed, which could be attributed to warming in winter and early spring and cooling in summer and late spring and changes in timing of snow melt. The study shows a linear positive relationship between rangeland vegetation production and snow cover in the drier parts of THR, a quadratic relationship near to permanent snow line, and a negative linear relationship in wetter highlands. These findings suggest that, while temperature is important, changes in snow cover and precipitation pattern play more important roles in snow-fed, drier regions for rangeland vegetation dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In areas of high relief, many glaciers have extensive covers of supraglacial debris in their ablation zones, which alters both rates and spatial patterns of melting, with important consequences for glacier response to climate change. Wastage of debris-covered glaciers can be associated with the formation of large moraine-dammed lakes, posing risk of glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs). In this paper, we use observations of glaciers in the Mount Everest region to present an integrated view of debris-covered glacier response to climate change, which helps provide a long-term perspective on evolving GLOF risks. In recent decades, debris-covered glaciers in the Everest region have been losing mass at a mean rate of ~0.32myr−1, although in most cases there has been little or no change in terminus position. Mass loss occurs by 4 main processes: (1) melting of clean ice close to glacier ELAs; (2) melting beneath surface debris; (3) melting of ice cliffs and calving around the margins of supraglacial ponds; and (4) calving into deep proglacial lakes. Modelling of processes (1) and (2) shows that Everest-region glaciers typically have an inverted ablation gradient in their lower reaches, due to the effects of a down-glacier increase in debris thickness. Mass loss is therefore focused in the mid parts of glacier ablation zones, causing localised surface lowering and a reduction in downglacier surface gradient, which in turn reduce driving stress and glacier velocity, so the lower ablation zones of many glaciers are now stagnant. Model results also indicate that increased summer temperatures have raised the altitude of the rain–snow transition during the summer monsoon period, reducing snow accumulation and ice flux to lower elevations. As downwasting proceeds, formerly efficient supraglacial and englacial drainage networks are broken up, and supraglacial lakes form in hollows on the glacier surface. Ablation rates around supraglacial lakes are typically one or two orders of magnitude greater than sub-debris melt rates, so extensive lake formation accelerates overall rates of ice loss. Most supraglacial lakes are ‘perched’ above hydrological base level, and are susceptible to drainage if they become connected to the englacial drainage system. Speleological surveys of conduits show that large englacial voids can be created by drainage of warm lake waters along pre-existing weaknesses in the ice. Roof collapses can open these voids up to the surface, and commonly provide the nuclei of new lakes. Thus, by influencing both lake drainage and formation, englacial conduits exert a strong control on surface ablation rates. An important threshold is crossed when downwasting glacier surfaces intersect the hydrological base level of the glacier. Base-level lakes formed behind intact moraine dams can grow monotonically, and in some cases can pose serious GLOF hazards. Glacier termini can evolve in different ways in response to the same climatic forcing, so that potentially hazardous lakes will form in some situations but not others. Additionally, the probability of a flood is not simply a function of lake volume, but depends on the geometry and structure of the dam, and possible trigger mechanisms such as ice- or rockfalls into the lake. Satellite-based measurements of glacier surface gradient and ice velocities allow probable future locations of base-level lakes to be identified. A base-level lake has begun to grow rapidly on Ngozumpa Glacier west of Mount Everest, and could attain a volume of ~108 m3 within the next 2 or 3 decades. Unless mitigation efforts are undertaken, this lake could pose considerable GLOF hazard potential. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: History shows that farmers and their supporting institutions have been successful in introducing technological innovations to respond and adapt to environmental and socioeconomic challenges. Innovation itself is a mechanism by which society adapt to changing resource endowments, and which is in turn driven by social and cultural values. In the future, as resource conditions changes, the role of institutions in the process of technological innovations would be crucial to avoid deleterious consequences of climate change in agriculture. Using Nepal as a case, this paper illustrates how farmers and their supporting institutions are evolving and co-producing climate sensitive technologies on demand. Drawing upon the hypothesis of induced innovation, we examine the extent to which resource endowments have influenced the evolution of technological and institutional innovations in Nepal’s agricultural research and development. This study reveals that Nepal has developed a novel multilevel institutional partnership, including collaboration with farmers and other non-governmental organizations in recent years. More importantly, by combining conventional technological innovation process with the tacit knowledge of farmers, this new alliance has been instrumental in the innovation of location-specific technologies thereby facilitating the adoption of technologies in a more efficient manner. This alliance has improved knowledge network among institutions, scientists and farmers and enabled them to seek technologies that are responsive to likely changes in climate. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper explores community perspectives of environmental change and the role development actors in the regional Nepali town of Nepalganj. Understanding these perceptions is crucial for planning future adaptation to climate change and ensuring that these measures are sustainable and in line with community priorities. Firstly, I contend that whilst the local community in Nepalganj may be experiencing the impacts of climate change, they are unfamiliar and disassociated with the concept. Secondly, I identify a number of risks and opportunities around the role of local government, international development organisations and local non-government organisations in future adaptation actions. Participant perceptions of these institutions in their community reinforce a number of established critiques of development around themes such as poor consultation and short project timelines. The long-term success of adaptation actions will be shaped by the ability and willingness of development actors to evolve their practices by listening to local communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper explores the potential for ethanol production and fuel substitution in Nepal based on established sugarcane production, installed capacity for sugar and ethanol production, economic opportunities for the national economy, and potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. At present conditions, 18,045m3 ethanol can be annually produced in Nepal without compromising the production of food products from sugar cane such as sugar, chaku and shakhar. The effects for the country can be manifold. As much as 14% of gasoline import reduction, and annual savings of US$ 10 million could be achieved through the introduction of the E20. The activity can provide an incentive for improved yields in sugarcane production, and help develop the industrial sector. This, in turn, will have a positive effect in terms of job and income generation in the rural areas where 85% of the population live. Improvement of agricultural practices for sugarcane could also have an indirect and positive effect on improving other agriculture activities. Furthermore, the use of ethanol in the transport sector will have a positive environmental effect while reducing CO2 emissions and combating pollution in the Kathmandu Valley. Finally, the substitution of ethanol in transport will imply lower imports of oil products and less draining of resources from the Nepalese economy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Given their unique natural attractions, including the highest mountain range in the world, the Nepalese Himalayas have long been a Mecca for trekkers and mountaineers. Nature-based tourism in the Nepalese Himalayas, however, is highly vulnerable to change in climatic conditions. This paper proposes a conceptual framework based on Jodha's mountain specificities, which include inaccessibility, fragility, marginality, diversity and niche, to examine the impacts and vulnerability of climate change on tourism in the Himalayas, with the cases of the three most popular protected areas of Nepal - Mt Everest National Park, Annapurna Conservation Area and Chitwan National Park - located in three physiographic zones. Each physiographic zone differs greatly and hence presents potentially different impacts and vulnerability to climate change. Avalanches and glacial lake outburst floods are the major hazards in high mountains; landslides, debris flows and flash floods are common in the hills; and floods are rampant in lowland Terai. The effects of these climate-related hazards on tourism are further exacerbated by mountain characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The impacts of monsoon rainfall on food insecurity differed by earthquake exposure. • Low rainfall was linked with greater food insecurity in non-impacted areas. • More rainfall was positively linked with food insecurity in affected areas. • This is likely due to rainfall increasing landslides in earthquake-affected regions. Food insecurity is a key global health challenge that is likely to be exacerbated by climate change. Though climate change is associated with an increased frequency of extreme weather events, little is known about how multiple environmental shocks in close succession interact to impact household health and well-being. In this paper, we assess how earthquake exposure followed by monsoon rainfall anomalies affect food insecurity in Nepal. We link food security data from the 2016 Nepal Demographic and Health Survey to data on shaking intensity during the 2015 Gorkha earthquake and rainfall anomalies during the 2015 monsoon season. We then exploit spatial variation in exposure to the earthquake and monsoon rainfall anomalies to isolate their independent and compound effects. We find that earthquake exposure alone was not associated with an increased likelihood of food insecurity, likely due in part to effective food aid distribution. However, the effects of rainfall anomalies differed by severity of earthquake exposure. Among households minimally impacted by the earthquake, low rainfall was associated with increased food insecurity, likely due to lower agricultural productivity in drought conditions. Among households that experienced at least moderate shaking, greater rainfall was positively associated with food insecurity, particularly in steep, mountainous areas. In these locations, rainfall events disproportionately increased landslides, which damaged roads, disrupted distribution of food aid, and destroyed agricultural land and assets. Additional research on the social impacts of compound environmental shocks is needed to inform adaptation strategies that work to improve well-being in the face of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interventions to increase benefits from energy-food-water-environment systems can involve changing infrastructure configurations and/or operational rules. In a context of complexity due to interdependencies and uncertainty, resource system intervention appraisal should consider multiple facets of system performance and a variety of plausible future conditions to achieve robust systems that balance multiple stakeholder definitions of acceptable performance. This paper proposes a novel multi-method decision-making under deep uncertainty approach to hydropower system design. The most efficient and robust designs are identified; those that maximize benefits and balance stakeholder interests despite uncertainty. It is applicable in any context where efficient and robust future hydropower systems are sought. The proposed approach is demonstrated in Nepal, showing the robustness benefits of diversified infrastructure systems; here the mixed development of both storage and run-of-river dams. Stress testing of a selected efficient and robust hydropower investment bundle reveals that institutional or financial uncertainties can most threaten the viability of assets, even when significant climate change is anticipated. • Multi-method hydropower portfolio screening approach is proposed and demonstrated. • Diverse performance metrics and physical/institutional uncertainties considered. • Efficient and robust portfolios filtered before stress-testing for vulnerabilities. • Diversified hydropower portfolios can be beneficial. • Institutional uncertainties may be more significant than physical uncertainties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although Nepal has been identified as a country highly vulnerable to adverse health and socioeconomic impacts arising from climate change, extant research on climate sensitive infectious diseases has yet to develop the evidence base to adequately address these threats. In this opinion paper we identify and characterise basic requirements that are hindering the progress of climate change and infectious disease research in Nepal. Our opinion is that immediate attention should be given to strengthening Nepal's public health surveillance system, promoting inter-sectoral collaboration, improving public health capacity, and enhancing community engagement in disease surveillance. Moreover, we advocate for greater technical support of public health researchers, and data sharing among data custodians and epidemiologists/researchers, to generate salient evidence to guide relevant public health policy formulation aimed at addressing the impacts of climate change on human health in Nepal. International studies on climate variability and infectious diseases have clearly demonstrated that climate sensitive diseases, namely vector-borne and food/water-borne diseases, are sensitive to climate variation and climate change. This research has driven the development and implementation of climate-based early warning systems for preventing potential outbreaks of climate-sensitive infectious diseases across many European and African countries. Similarly, we postulate that Nepal would greatly benefit from a climate-based early warning system, which would assist in identification or prediction of conditions suitable for disease emergence and facilitate a timely response to reduce mortality and morbidity during epidemics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The deadly threat that landslide has brought about is drawing more and more attention to analyze the mechanisms of landslides and the relationship between landslides and climate change. Due to the limited record of historical landslides in developing countries, relevant research is mostly conducted in developed countries. Owing to the publicly available global long time-series Landsat images, such unbalance can be avoided by proposing a practical landslide detection model, especially in terms of national scale. This paper takes the advantage of google earth engine platform to synthesize the annual Landsat images covering the national scale of Nepal into one image and builds an end-to-end contour-based landslide detection deep learning framework. The framework consists of two parts, one is potential landslide detection using vegetation index and degradation of DEM, the other is exact landslide detection using semantic segmentation deep learning model based on the contour regions extracted from the detected potential landslide. The proposed method is applied to detect landslides of Nepal in the year of 2015 and achieves a satisfactory performance with 65% recall and 55.35% precision. The performance is 44% higher accurate than similarly published works, validating its promising applicability in practical landslide detection for national cases. • Resist the imbalanced distribution of landslides using contour-based method. • Avoid feature engineering by applying deep learning framework. • Enlarge the practical applicability by evaluation in Nepal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]