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Long-term experiments are essential in understanding the ecological consequences of global land use and climate change. Further, it is well established that longterm data sets are prerequisites for effective management of forest resources and biodiversity conservation. In view of this, the present study attempts to contribute to major global long-term ecological monitoring (LTEM) networks and the status of LTEM studies in India with a special focus on Indian Himalayan Region. Over the last 40 years, around 103 countries from the America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia have been engaged in LTEM studies on various aspects of biodiversity, monitoring and predicting climate change impacts in a range of ecosystems, including the mountains. The temporal distribution of past studies on the subject shows a gradual increasing pattern (3 papers in 1992) with a peak during 2021 (105 papers). The established LTEM networks across the globe provide a significant empirical basis for understanding ecosystem structure and dynamics. Literature indicates plenty of permanent monitoring plots from India, mostly from southern India, and their significant contribution to ecosystem understanding. Himalayan regions are important sites for monitoring biological and socio-ecological responses to environmental perturbations, including climate change. LTEM studies are lacking in the IHR; only a few sites have been established, mostly in alpine ecosystems. This review identifies research gaps, opportunities with respect to LTEM studies, and the possibilities for strengthening long-term research and observation in India in general and the Himalaya in particular. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are a few regions in the world, where climate change impacts are more intense than other regions of the world, and Himalaya is the case. The Himalaya, one of the biodiversity hotspot regions and provider of ecosystem services to billion of people all across the world. Present study reviewed and synthesized climate change studies in the Himalayan region in general and Indian Himalayan region (IHR) in particular. Analysis of the literature indicates exponentially increase in climate change studies 2005 onward in the IHR, and maximum are from Jammu and Kashmir (105) followed by Uttarakhand (100) and Himachal Pradesh (77). Among the subject types, maximum climate change impact was studied on water resources/glacier retreat (141 studies) followed by agriculture (113) and forests/biodiversity (86). Increasing temperature, frequent drought spells, erratic rainfall and declining snowfall are commonly reported indicators of climate change. For instance, temperature is reported to increase by 1.5 °C in the Himalaya than an average increase of 0.74 °C globally in last century; however, it varied in eastern (0.1 °C per decade and western Himalayas (0.09 °C per decade. An increase in temperature between 0.28 and 0.80 °C per decade was reported for North-western Himalaya and 0.20–1.00 °C per decade for Eastern Himalaya. The higher altitude of Himalayan and Trans-Himalayan zone are reported to be warming at higher rates. Many of the glaciers were reported to be retreating in both eastern and western Himalaya. Heavy rainfall is becoming very common in the region often accompanied by cloudbursts that aggravate flood situation many times. Perception-based studies of the region reported to provide firsthand and detailed descriptions of climate change indicators and impacts from rural and remote areas, where no instrumental data are available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Status of Long-Term Ecological Monitoring (LTEM) in India was reviewed. • Protocol developed for establishing LTEM in forests ecosystem in Indian Himalaya. • Criteria and indicator approach was developed for LTEM in forests ecosystem. • Long-term ecological plots were established in diverse forests for monitoring. Abstract The Himalaya, as provider of range of goods and ecosystem services, is vital for sustaining the life of billions of people. Recognition as one of the Global biodiversity hotspot implies its global significance. The forest ecosystems and plant biodiversity in the region is predicted to respond to the rapid warming and the human induced perturbations. However, documentation of these responses and likely consequences is meagre so as to provide a basis for future comparison. Realizing the importance of understanding relationships of climate change (CC) and forest biodiversity, systematic collection of data sets, covering various aspects of environment was attempted through establishing Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) and monitoring. The LTERs in general, have emerged to be important to improve our understanding on spatio-temporal variations happening in a particular ecosystem. Indian National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) sets out National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) to conserve Himalayan ecosystem from the brunt of climate vulnerabilities. Considering importance of Himalaya forests and their sensitivity to CC impacts, NMSHE has stressed on undertaking Long-Term Ecological Monitoring (LTEM) and development of monitoring protocol with forest biodiversity specific parameters and indicators. In this context first of its kind attempt have been made to develop long-term ecological monitoring protocol along with suitable criteria and indicators for the Indian Himalaya, and demonstrate it through documenting base line data of established LTEM plots in diverse forest types in the Indian western Himalaya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We derived a spatial map of inherent forest vulnerability using ground based observation. • This study was undertaken at 1 km2 resolution using nine forest vulnerability indicators. • Temperate and mixed forests showed higher forest vulnerability compared to subtropical pine & broadleaf and subalpine forests. • Elevation, population density, slope, rainfall, temperature, and aspect are major drivers of forest vulnerability assessment in the Himalaya. Forest vulnerability assessment with ground realities/ data has great implications for adaptation and management planning at local and regional scale. However, such assessments are still limited across globe including the Himalaya. In view of this, present study derived a spatial map of inherent forest vulnerability using ground based observation and information in the western Himalaya. Based on literature and data availability, we selected nine forest vulnerability indicators under four domains i.e., ecological (species richness, and NDVI), climate (temperature, rainfall), topographic (slope, aspect, elevation), disturbances (forest fragmentation) and social (population density). Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), which is a multi-criteria decision method, was used for weighting the vulnerability indicators. Based on AHP, forest vulnerability index (FVI) was developed using general linear model approach. The FVI index was further classified into four different categories i.e., low, medium, high and very high. The results revealed maximum (37%) forest grids under medium vulnerable profile followed by 31% (high) and 21% (low) vulnerable grids. In general, temperate and mixed forests show higher forest vulnerability in the region, whereas subtropical pine, broadleaf and subalpine forests falls under lesser vulnerable forest grids. These results exhibited that elevation (15.4%), population density (15.1%), slope (14.5%), rainfall (13.7%), forest fragmentation (12.9%), temperature (12.3), and aspect (11.4%) are the major drivers of forest vulnerability, particularly for the Himalayan region. To validate the results, we compared the developed FVI in present study with ground based FVI already generated in previous studies from the region, and found higher similarity in the assessments. The spatial forest vulnerability maps generated in the present study provides a realistic profile of vulnerable forests in Indian western Himalaya, which can be used for developing adaptation measure and management planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Integrated vulnerability of community forests assessed using index based approach. • FVI was developed by integrating 14 indicators of six different domains. • Results revealed high vulnerability of low and mid zone community forests. • This study conclude local level adaptations cannot be based on global level studies. • This study indicates community forests require urgent attention by concerned government. The Himalaya is often referred to as forested landscape, which provides a range of ecosystem services vital for sustaining life of billions of people. The region is recognized amongst the 35 global biodiversity hotspots for its unique and rich biodiversity. Also, the region is highly vulnerable to perturbations due to anthropogenic disturbances and climate change. Especially the forests in the region are subject to stress from such perturbations. The higher dependency of communities on forests and changing climate has impacts on structure and function of forest ecosystems. This has severe implications for forest dependent communities. Therefore, vulnerability assessment of forests is urgently needed to understand the likely consequences of these changes and responses. Such information would help in developing better management and conservation planning. Earlier studies on vulnerability assessment of forests and forest-dependent people have failed to acknowledge the importance of spatial and temporal aspects of vulnerability investigated through field based observations. Realizing this, present study focuses on forest vulnerability assessment through field based observations along an altitudinal gradient (700–3400 m) in the Indian west Himalaya. This study, for the first time, provides vulnerability assessment of community forests at local scale following integrated approach of multiple indicators across diverse domains. The vulnerability indicators have been identified through a systematic analysis and extensive review of the available literature. A total of 14 indicators in six domains (viz. forest, climate, anthropogenic, topographic, soil and management practices) were identified to assess inherent vulnerability of Community Forests (Van Panchayats) in the target region. Furthermore, Forest Vulnerability Index (FVI) was calculated by integrating the selected indicators across domains. The results revealed high vulnerability at low altitude (<1200 m) forests. Disturbance index, expansion of invasive species and people dependency has emerged as the major factors responsible for forest vulnerability in the region. The value of FVI declined significantly (R2 = 0.51, p < 0.001) with increasing altitude range. The study also analysed perceptions of inhabitant community regarding dependency on forest resources, management practices and status of community forest in the studied area. The outcomes of this study would help in developing management interventions and strategies to ensure sustainable management of forest resources in the targeted landscape in particular and Indian Himalaya in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]