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OBJECTIVE The current study aimed to assess the new theoretical model of PTG, alongside a measure of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) due to the ongoing distress that is often experienced by trauma survivors. The study examined the direct pathway to PTG and PTSS through previously identified predictors including core belief disruption, event centrality, and rumination, with the addition of self-disclosure as a predictor variable. METHOD Participants (N = 231) who had experienced a traumatic event were recruited through online forums and completed an anonymous survey. Factor analysis revealed 2 distinct types of disclosure: helpful and unhelpful. Hypotheses were tested using hierarchical regressions. RESULTS The findings supported a combination of event centrality, core-belief disruption, deliberate rumination, and helpful disclosure significantly predicting PTG, with event centrality and unhelpful disclosure being significant predictors of PTSS. CONCLUSIONS The current findings provide support for the direct pathway described in the model of PTG, and that PTSS and PTG share some similar predictors, as well as distinct differences. These findings have the potential to assist clinicians and researchers in recognizing factors that are likely promote the development of PTG. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Objective Understandings of the biological mechanisms underpinning posttrauma responses are limited. This pilot study aimed to expand research in this area by examining the relationship between DNA methylation of stress genes nuclear receptor subfamily 3 group C member 1 (NR3C1) and FK06 binding protein 5 (FKBP5) with an array of posttrauma responses of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity, posttraumatic growth (PTG), and resilience. Method First-year paramedicine students (N = 47) completed self-report measures of PTSD symptom severity, PTG, and resilience and provided a saliva sample for methylation analysis. Surrogate variable analyses identified covariates after which generalized regression models were performed to identify genomic sites significantly associated with PTSD symptom severity, PTG, or resilience. Results Methylation of different FKBP5 and NR3C1 sites was significantly associated with PTSD symptom severity, PTG, and resilience. Methylation in FKBP5 site cg07485685 was a predictor of both PTSD symptom severity and resilience in opposite directions. Conclusions This is the first study investigating methylation changes in PTG, and overall the results suggest that NR3C1 and FKBP5 methylation is associated with both positive and negative posttrauma responses. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Background Epigenetic aging is associated with a plethora of negative health outcomes and increased mortality. Yet, the dynamicity of epigenetic age after exposure to trauma and the factors that influence epigenetic age are not fully understood. This research evaluated longitudinal changes in epigenetic age before and after exposure to work-related trauma among paramedicine students. We further investigated psychological and social risk (psychological distress, posttraumatic stress disorder/PTSD symptom severity, professional quality of life) and protective factors (social support and organisational membership) that drive epigenetic aging at both time points. Methods The study comprised of 80 samples of University paramedicine students including 40 individuals at two time points – t0 (baseline) and t1 (post-trauma exposure). Epigenome-wide analysis was performed from t0 and t1 saliva using the Illumina EPIC arrays that cover >860k probes. Data analysis was performed using R via generalized regression models. The epigenetic age was calculated based on the Horvath algorithm, GrimAge and SkinBloodAge were calculated using the Horvath online calculator, and p-value for significance was corrected using the FDR method for multiple testing corrections. Results The epigenetic age at t0 and t1 were highly correlated with chronological age and with each other (r = 0.84–0.94). Baseline epigenetic age and follow-up epigenetic age were significantly associated with risk factors of psychological distress and PTSD symptom severity. Among the protective factors, a sense of psychological organisational membership at the start of the paramedicine course as measured at baseline significantly reduced epigenetic age at baseline and post-trauma exposure. On the other hand, receiving social support acted as a protective factor only after exposure to trauma (follow-up), decreasing epigenetic aging at follow-up. GrimAge acceleration at follow-up was significantly associated with increased PTSD symptom severity at baseline and follow-up. Moreover, increased social support at baseline and follow-up was associated with reduced follow-up GrimAge acceleration. Conclusion These results demonstrate that epigenetic aging is dynamic and changes after exposure to trauma. Additionally, results demonstrate that different risk and protective factors influence epigenetic aging at different times. In conclusion, the research identified risk and protective factors associated with epigenetic aging pre- and post-trauma exposure, with implications for health and well-being among individuals exposed to trauma.

Commercial sexual exploitation affects between 5,000 and 7,000 girls and women in Nepal each year and can have devastating physical and psychological consequences. Much research has documented these effects; however, there is no published research that focuses on whether healing and growth outcomes are possible for survivors of commercial sexual exploitation. The narratives of 26 girls and women (13–18 years) were taken at two time points during participation in a 6-week group psychoeducation and art therapy program, which was delivered across three nongovernmental organizations in Kathmandu, Nepal. Thematic analysis of the data was undertaken. Themes emerging from Time Point 1 were psychological distress in the form of anxiety and grief over loss of family, psychosomatic symptoms, empathy and compassion, and posttraumatic growth (PTG; new possibilities, relating to others, and personal strength). The themes emerging from Time Point 2, were empathy and compassion and PTG (cognitive restructuring, new possibilities, relating to others, and personal strength). These outcomes were seen alongside ongoing distress. Future research would advance knowledge by further examining the process of PTG in this population, if the changes observed were lasting, and, if so, ways in which PTG can be facilitated or promoted.

Much research has sought to understand factors that predict both positive and negative posttrauma outcomes. Social support is one factor that has been widely investigated, primarily as a buffer against the negative effects of stressful life events. While receiving social support has claimed much empirical attention attesting to its positive impact on psychological outcomes following exposure to trauma, the influence of giving social support has received less empirical attention. The current study aimed to assess the influence of giving as well as receiving social support on psychological outcomes in two trauma-exposed samples: flood survivors (N = 351) and firefighters (N = 337), controlling for perceptions of trauma severity. The study used the Brief 2-Way SSS, a measure of both receiving and giving, emotional and instrumental support. Results indicated that although giving social support showed a significant bivariate relationship with depression and stress in the firefighter sample, the unique contribution of giving social support was found only for posttraumatic growth. In contrast, the influence of social support on measures of depression, anxiety, and stress was seen through the receipt of social support. These findings provide support for the value of examining both receiving and giving social support, as they may have differential impacts in buffering against the impact of trauma exposure on psychological outcomes.

This study examined the relationships between posttraumatic growth (PTG) and posttraumatic depreciation (PTD) across 10 countries and assessed the factorial invariance of the standardized inventory assessing PTG and PTD, the PTGDI-X, the expansion of the PTGI-X (Tedeschi et al., 2017). We also investigated the roles of social and cognitive factors in PTG and PTD. Data were collected from participants who identified that their most stressful life experience met the definition of trauma in Australia, Germany, Italy, Japan, Nepal, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Turkey, and the US. The participants completed the PTGDI-X and inventories measuring posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and predictor variables such as reexamination of core beliefs, centrality of the event, rumination, and disclosures. Results identified universal aspects such as equivalence of factor loadings of the PTGDI-X and the impact of positive/negative disclosure on PTG and PTD. Results also revealed culture-specific aspects, including the relationships between PTG and PTD, and different patterns of cognitive predictors for PTG and PTD. The current study offered the insight that, for the first time using international data, positive and negative post-trauma changes are not likely to be on opposing ends of one dimension, and it is essential to use the PTGDI-X to better understand both positive and negative aspects of post-traumatic experiences.

Australia looks to be one of those lucky countries that adopted an early public health response limiting community transmission of COVID-19 and avoiding the levels of acute hospitalization and fatality seen in other settings. Yet the pandemic came on the back of the largest bushfire season the country had seen which itself followed a sequence of climatic disasters involving drought, cyclones and floods. The social and economic impact of the COVID-19 response has been substantial with widespread loss of employment, social dislocation and health fears sparked across the nation. Findings from risk modeling and population surveillance provide preliminary evidence of increased burden of psychological distress, morbidity and risk of suicide resulting from the current crisis. We also highlight the mental health risk that may arise from increased sedentary behavior with the introduction of lockdown and physical distancing measures. We also outline the potently valuable role of drawing on salutogenic models including resilience and post traumatic growth research for individual and broader community level need. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Most people will experience a traumatic event within their lifetime. One commonly recognized response to trauma exposure is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The biological underpinnings of PTSD, including epigenetic mechanisms of DNA methylation and gene expression, have been studied intensively. However, psychological posttrauma responses vary widely and can include positive outcomes, such as posttraumatic growth (PTG) and, more commonly, resilience. The aim of this systematic review was to summarize the current DNA methylation and gene expression data with respect to three potential posttrauma responses: PTSD, PTG, and resilience. A literature search identified 486 studies, 51 of which were deemed eligible for inclusion (total N = 10,633). All included studies examined PTSD and consistently implicated DNA methylation and gene expression changes in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and inflammatory genes. Ten studies acknowledged resilience as a posttrauma response, but only two studies examined epigenetics and gene expression using a scale to measure resilience. Low resilience was associated with gene expression patterns in immune and dopamine genes, and high resilience was associated with a blunted inflammatory response. No studies examined epigenetic or gene expression changes associated with PTG. These findings highlight a focus on pathogenic research, which has failed to adequately acknowledge and measure positive posttrauma outcomes of PTG and resilience. Future research should examine DNA methylation and gene expression changes associated with PTG and resilience in addition to PTSD in order to gain a more comprehensive picture of an individual's well-being following exposure to trauma.

Aim - A standardised tool was needed to measure a generalist dietitian’s confidence about working with clients experiencing psychological issues in order to effectively evaluate mental health-related professional development activities. The aim of this study was to develop, pilot and validate a robust instrument that measures a generalist dietitian’s professional confidence for working with clients experiencing psychological issues. Methods - The Dietetic Confidence Scale (DCS) was developed. Two cross-sectional samples of practicing dietitians (n = 185; 458) from various settings and locations were recruited. Study 1: principal components analysis (PCA) helped refine scale items and derive a model, which was then validated using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA, Study 2). Cronbach’s alpha estimated scale reliability. Correlations assessed associations between factors. Results - Study 1: A 13-item, two-factor solution accounted for 69.1% of the total variance. Total Cronbach’s α = 0.92. Dietetic confidence was associated with: (i) Confidence using the Nutrition Care Process and (ii) Confidence Advocating for Self care and Client care. Study 2: The CFA supported the proposed scale and model. A Good Fit Index of 0.95 indicated a strong fit. Item-factor correlations ranged from r = 0.50 to 0.91. The final scale showed good reliability (α = 0.93). Conclusions - This is the first self-efficacy scale for dietetic practitioners subjected to PCA and CFA using two independent samples. The DCS is a psychometrically robust instrument with strong internal consistency. It can be used to measure dietetic confidence about working with clients experiencing psychological issues and to highlight areas where additional support or training may be needed. Further validity and reliability testing is needed to enhance scale generalisability and use.

Traumatic experiences can have a powerful impact on individuals and communities but the relationship between perceptions of beneficial and pathological outcomes are not known. Therefore, this meta-analysis examined both the strength and the linearity of the relationship between symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and perceptions of posttraumatic growth (PTG) as well as identifying the potential moderating roles of trauma type and age. Literature searches of all languages were conducted using the ProQuest, Wiley Interscience, ScienceDirect, Informaworld and Web of Science databases. Linear and quadratic (curvilinear) rs as well as βs were analysed. Forty-two studies (N = 11,469) that examined both PTG and symptoms of PTSD were included in meta-analytic calculations. The combined studies yielded a significant linear relationship between PTG and PTSD symptoms (r = 0.315, CI = 0.299, 0.331), but also a significantly stronger (as tested by Fisher's transformation) curvilinear relationship (r =0.372, CI = 0.353, 0.391). The strength and linearity of these relationships differed according to trauma type and age. The results remind those working with traumatised people that positive and negative post-trauma outcomes can co-occur. A focus only on PTSD symptoms may limit or slow recovery and mask the potential for growth.

Emergency service workers (e.g., fire-fighters, police and paramedics) are exposed to elevated levels of potentially traumatising events through the course of their work. Such exposure can have lasting negative consequences (e. g., Post Traumatic Stress Disorder; PTSD) and/or positive outcomes (e. g., Posttraumatic Growth; PTG). Research had implicated trauma, occupational and personal variables that account for variance in post-trauma outcomes yet at this stage no research has investigated these factors and their relative influence on both PTSD and PTG in a single study. Based in Calhoun and Tedeschi’s (2013) model of PTG and previous research, in this study regression models of PTG and PTSD symptoms among 218 fire-fighters were tested. Results indicated organisational factors predicted symptoms of PTSD, while there was partial support for the hypothesis that coping and social support would be predictors of PTG. Experiencing multiple sources of trauma, higher levels of organisational and operational stress, and utilising cognitive reappraisal coping, were all significant predictors of PTSD symptoms. Increases in PTG were predicted by experiencing trauma from multiple sources and the use of self-care coping. Results highlight the importance of organisational factors in the development of PTSD symptoms, and of individual factors for promoting PTG.

The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) is the most commonly used measure of positive psychological change that can result from negotiating a traumatic experience. While the PTGI has strong internal reliability, validity studies are still sparse. The present research details trauma survivors' understanding of items comprising the PTGI in order to qualitatively assess content validity. Participants were 14 trauma survivors who completed the PTGI and participated in a semistructured interview. Thematic analysis was conducted on participants' transcribed interviews. One latent theme was identified reflecting that questions were consistently understood. A relationship was found between the constituent themes identified and the five factors of the PTGI. Participants answered the PTGI statements in a way that is consistent with the purpose of the instrument, with only a small discrepancy found when some participants used the PTGI scale to indicate when a decrease in an element of the inventory had been experi...

Background Parenting a child with a developmental disability presents a variety of long-term physical and emotional challenges. When exploring parent wellbeing, the disability field is dominated by a deficit model despite parents reportedly demonstrating coping and resilience. The current study is embedded in a salutogenic theory (Antonovsky, 1979) and explores the potential for parents of children diagnosed with a developmental disability to undergo positive changes.Method Participants were 6 fathers and 27 mothers who completed measures of distress and posttraumatic growth.Results Compared with a number of other Australian samples, participants reported significantly higher levels of posttraumatic growth. Reports of growth did not negate reports of distress. Results also indicated that constructs of distress and growth were independent.Conclusions The research has important implications for disability support services, reminding providers to be cognisant of the potential for growth, as well as d...

Informed by current trauma literature, this study explored the relationships between posttraumatic growth (PTG), posttraumatic depreciation (PTD), and other posttrauma outcomes including well-being, psychological flourishing, and psychological distress. The predictive utility of PTG and PTD was also examined. The sample comprised 104 trauma survivors (28 community members and 76 university students) who completed the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory–42 and several outcome measures. As expected, PTD showed strong linear correlations with well-being, flourishing and distress, and emerged as a significant predictor of scores on such measures. However, PTG showed negligible correlations with well-being, flourishing, and distress. This reaffirms that PTG and PTD measure conceptually distinct and independent dimensions of experience, which has implications for therapeutic practice.

Clinical work with people who have survived trauma carries a risk of vicarious traumatisation for the service provider, as well as the potential for vicarious post-traumatic growth (VPTG). Despite a growing interest in this area, the effects of working with survivors of refugee-related trauma have remained relatively unexplored. In this study, we examined the lived experiences of people working on a daily basis with survivors of torture and trauma who had sought refuge in Australia. Seventeen clinical, administrative and managerial staff from a not-for-profit organisation participated in a semi-structured interview that was later analysed using interpretive phenomenological analysis. Analysis of the data demonstrated that the entire sample reported symptoms of vicarious trauma (e.g. strong emotional reactions, intrusive images and shattering of existing beliefs) as well as VPTG (e.g. forming new relationships, increased self-understanding and gaining a greater appreciation of life). Moreover, effortful me...

Childhood sexual assault (CSA) is one of the most devastating of all traumatic experiences with population studies documenting survivors experiencing higher levels of pathology than general trends in survivors of other traumatic experiences. Yet recent research has demonstrated that far from being permanently crippled by their experiences, many adult survivors of CSA manage to heal and move forward in their lives to experience a rich and fulfilling existence. In this paper two case studies are presented to provide a detailed account of how a person who has experienced CSA may find a pathway to healing. Moreover, data demonstrates that meaning making, spiritual or otherwise, is a pivotal part of acceptance of CSA and ensuing growth. The case studies highlight the unique journeys of two women and the underlying similarities in their pathway to healing. Clinical implications of the research are discussed and specific strategies for encouraging healing and growth are outlined.

Objective - Ambulance personnel provide emergency medical services to the community, often attending to highly challenging and traumatic scenes in complex and chaotic circumstances. Currently the assessment of predictors of psychological well-being remains limited. The current study investigated whether workplace belongingness was significant in predicting psychological distress as well as the presence of resilience in ambulance personnel whilst controlling for more routinely examined factors. Method - Australian ambulance officers (N = 740) completed a survey battery including the Kessler 10 (Kessler & Mroczek, 1994), Brief Resilience Scale (Smith et al., 2008) and Psychological Sense of Organisational Membership (Cockshaw & Shochet, 2010) scale. Results - Controlling for more commonly examined factors such as severity of trauma exposure and length of service, hierarchical multiple regression analyses demonstrated that workplace belongingness was significantly associated with reduced distress levels and enhanced resilience levels. Conclusions - Results suggest that strategies to enhance a sense of workplace belongingness in emergency service organisations could promote the well-being of emergency workers despite routine exposure to potentially traumatic events.

This study aimed to identify positive behavioural changes that people may make as a result of negotiating the aftermath of a traumatic experience, thereby extending the current cognitive model of posttraumatic growth (PTG). It was hypothesised that significant others would corroborate survivors' cognitive and behavioural reports of PTG. The sample comprised 176 participants: 88 trauma survivors and 88 significant others. University students accounted for 64%; 36% were from the broader community. Approximately one third were men. All participants completed the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) and open-ended questions regarding behavioural changes. The PTGI scores of the survivors were corroborated by their significant others with only the Appreciation of Life factor of the PTGI differing between the 2 groups (e.g., total PTGI scores between groups explained 33% of variance). Nearly all of the survivors also reported positive changes in their behaviour; these changes were also corroborated by the significant others. Results provide validation of the PTG construct and the PTGI as an instrument of measurement. Findings may also influence therapeutic practice by pointing to the potential usefulness of corroborating others in the recovery and growth process.

Previous research with emergency service workers has examined the relationship between operational and organizational stress and negative indicators of mental health, and generally found that organizational stress is more strongly related to pathology than operational stress.The current study aimed to create and test a model predicting both posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and posttraumatic growth (PTG) simultaneously in a sample of firefighters (N = 250).The results found that the model demonstrated good fit for the data. In contrast to previous research operational stress was directly related to PTSD symptoms, whereas organizational stress was not. Organizational stress was indirectly related to PTG, through the mediating role of organizational belongingness.This research identified organizational belongingness as a good target for psychosocial interventions aimed at promoting positive adaptation following the experience of trauma in emergency services. (PsycINFO Database Record

The type of cancer diagnosed can have a differential impact on postdiagnosis adjustment (e.g., coping strategies, likelihood to complete treatment). Investigations examining cancer diagnostic differences in posttraumatic growth (PTG) are yet to be published. The current study examined 235 participants who had been treated at a regional hospital for all forms of cancer. Group differences in PTG were assessed through a cross-sectional design between breast, prostate, hematological, and colorectal cancer survivors. Results demonstrated that breast cancer survivors reported significantly higher levels of PTG than those diagnosed with colorectal and hematological malignancies, but not significantly different from prostate cancer survivors. While cancer diagnostic group differences in PTG were evident, PTG levels were also positively associated with trauma severity and distress. These results are discussed in terms of developing a postdiagnosis care model that can be utilized across all cancer type diagnoses in...

Research examining posttrauma pathology indicates negative outcomes can differ as a function of the type of trauma experienced. Such research has yet to be published when looking at positive posttrauma changes. Ninety-four survivors of trauma, forming three groups, completed the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory and Impact of Events Scale-Revised. Groups comprised survivors of (a) sexual abuse, (b) motor vehicle accidents, and (c) bereavement. Results indicated differences in growth between the groups, with the bereaved reporting higher levels of growth than other survivors and sexual abuse survivors demonstrating higher levels of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms than the other groups. However, this did not preclude sexual abuse survivors from also reporting moderate levels of growth. Results are discussed with relation to fostering growth through clinical practice.

There is sparse systematic examination of the potential for growth as well as distress that may occur for some adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. The presented study explored posttraumatic growth and its relationship with negative posttrauma outcomes within the specific population of survivors of childhood sexual abuse (N = 40). Results showed that 95% of the participants experienced clinically significant post-traumatic stress disorder symptomatology related to their childhood sexual abuse. In conjunction with these high levels of negative symptoms, the population evidenced posttraumatic growth levels that were comparable to other trauma samples. This research has clinical relevance in terms of adding to the knowledge base on sexual abuse and the usefulness of this knowledge in therapeutic interventions and relationships.

The structure and psychometric characteristics of the NEO Personality Inventory—3 (NEO-PI-3), a more readable version of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R), are examined and compared with NEO-PI-R characteristics using data from college student observer ratings of 5,109 adolescents aged 12 to 17 years from 24 cultures. Replacement items in the PI-3 showed on average stronger item—total correlations and slightly improved facet reliabilities compared with the NEO-PI-R in both English- and non-English-speaking samples. NEO-PI-3 replacement items did not substantially affect scale means compared with the original scales. Analyses across and within cultures confirmed the intended factor structure of both versions when used to describe young adolescents. The authors discuss implications of these cross-cultural findings for the advancement of studies in adolescence and personality development across the lifespan.

The study aimed to discover whether personality characteristics and waking emotions relate to dreaming emotions. There were 123 participants, ranging in age from 17 to 82 years. It was hypothesized that participants with significant positive emotional trait and state ratings in waking life would experience more positive dreams. Data collection utilized diaries and questionnaires, including Hartmann's Boundary Questionnaire, IPIP Emotional Stability Scale, Staats' Hope Scale, Adult Dispositional Hope Scale, and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule to assess personality and attitudinal characteristics. Participants recorded and rated their waking and dream emotions over a 3-week period. Median correlations between corresponding waking and dream emotions were .58 for positive emotions and .47 for negative emotions. There were also low, but significant correlations between some personality characteristics and participants' tendency to experience positive or negative emotions in dreams. © 2007 American Psychological Association.

Research investigating the process of adaptation in newly recruited police officers is scarce and has yielded mixed results. Some research highlights the incidence of difficulty in adjusting to the role of police officer such as predictors of elevated stress and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Others have investigated why the majority of officers are resilient to the work and organizational challenges presented. This article examines personality, prior experience, and coping strategies of 94 newly recruited Australian police officers. The data provide a picture of police personnel who are not selected with personality profiling. Results demonstrated that the officers' personality profiles, as measured by the NEO Five-Factor Inventory, were consistent with U.S. adult norms, except for elevated levels of extraversion. Common coping strategies include positive reinterpretation, acceptance, and planning. Measures of PTSD and positive posttrauma changes were higher in recruits who had endured...

Inherent in emergency service work is a relatively high level of exposure to potentially traumatic experiences. Traditionally, research has examined the negative or pathological effects that trauma may have on individuals, as well as variables that are proposed to influence post-trauma outcomes, for example, personality, coping, organisational and demographic factors. In recent years, empirical post-trauma research has broadened its scope to investigate positive changes that may also occur following the experience of a traumatic event. This study examines personality and coping variables in relation to levels of posttraumatic growth (PTG) in emergency ambulance personnel (N = 526). Correlations revealed that extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and coping levels significantly relate to perceptions of PTG. Multiple regression analysis demonstrated that the relationship between personality and PTG is largely mediated by levels of coping. Implications of the research include the tailorin...

In this study a sample of male, shift-working, operational ambulance officers were compared with a group of male shift-workers from a range of occupations in which exposure to traumatic events was not inherent in the role ( N = 71). Three dimensions of family functioning were examined: intimacy, conflict, and parenting styles, with respect to occupational type (i.e. work-related exposure to trauma) and accounting for personal resources (coping). Personal resources were found to have a significant impact on the dimensions of family functioning. Furthermore, differences emerged in the pattern of coping between the two groups. Ambulance officers demonstrated a more varied repertoire of personal resources than the control group. Social support was found to be the sole predictor of intimacy and conflict levels in the control sample. However, in the ambulance group social support was predictive of intimacy levels, rational-cognitive strategies were predictive of conflict levels, and self-care, social support, a...

The field of bereavement and grief has been expanding to recognise the potential for growth following the loss of a loved one. This study sought to examine the effect of the relationship to the deceased and perceptions of the severity of the trauma on dimensions of posttraumatic growth. Participants were 146 people who had lost either: a) a first degree relative, b) a second degree relative, or c) a non-related friend. Results demonstrated that both severity and the relationship to the bereaved differentiate posttraumatic growth outcomes. For example, participants who had lost a first degree relative reported higher levels of growth than those who had lost a second degree relative. Consistent with previous research in general trauma populations, the more severe the loss was rated, the higher the levels of growth. Implications for practice are discussed.

Objective: Theoretical models of post-traumatic growth (PTG) have been derived in the general trauma literature to describe the post-trauma experience that facilitates the perception of positive life changes. To develop a statistical model identifying factors that are associated with PTG, structural equation modelling (SEM) was used in the current study to assess the relationships between perception of diagnosis severity, rumination, social support, distress, and PTG. Method: A statistical model of PTG was tested in a sample of participants diagnosed with a variety of cancers (N5313). Results: An initial principal components analysis of the measure used to assess rumination revealed three components: intrusive rumination, deliberate rumination of benefits, and life purpose rumination. SEM results indicated that the model fit the data well and that 30% of the variance in PTG was explained by the variables. Trauma severity was directly related to distress, but not to PTG. Deliberately ruminating on benefits and social support were directly related to PTG. Life purpose rumination and intrusive rumination were associated with distress. Conclusions: The model showed that in addition to having unique correlating factors, distress was not related to PTG, thereby providing support for the notion that these are discrete constructs in the post-diagnosis experience. The statistical model provides support that postdiagnosis experience is simultaneously shaped by positive and negative life changes and that one or the other outcome may be prevalent or may occur concurrently. As such, an implication for practice is the need for supportive care that is holistic in nature.

Over the last decade, a healthy shift in the trauma literature has meant that published theory and research in the posttraumatic growth (PTG) domain has burgeoned, but the validity of the self-report questionnaires used to measure PTG has recently been criticized. Corroboration of these subjective reports by an observer would provide convergent validity. Therefore, this study's aim was to validate the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996). Sixty-one trauma survivors and 61 paired significant others completed the PTGI. A significant correlation was reported between the total PTGI scores of the trauma survivors and the corroborating significant others, supporting the use of the PTGI as an appropriate measure of positive posttrauma changes.

Recent trauma literature has supported a philosophical shift from a pathogenic to a salutogenic paradigm in which the focus is on positive, as well as negative, posttrauma changes; however, empirical knowledge exploring the different domains of positive change or posttraumatic growth (PTG) is scarce. The present study investigated the multidimensionality of PTG in Australian undergraduate students (N = 219). Results indicated five factors for the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory, and moderate levels of PTG. Trauma severity was found to significantly predict PTG in addition to a positive correlation between PTG and negative posttrauma effects. While not negating negative effects of traumatic experiences, this area of traumatology research has important implications for redefining the "victims" of trauma as individuals capable of positive change rather than merely surviving.