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Although the overrepresentation of people with mental illness in the criminal justice system is known, research is needed to identify the frequency of criminal justice involvement and criminogenic treatment needs in inpatient populations to improve continuity of care and access to appropriate treatments. The purpose of this study is to document the frequency of criminal justice involvement among people receiving inpatient community care, as has been done for persons with mental illness in correctional institutions, and to test the association between criminogenic risk and psychiatric symptomatology. The present study uses two samples (n = 94 and n = 142) of adults from two separate acute psychiatric inpatient hospitals in Texas. Data on psychiatric symptoms, mental health history, criminal risk, and criminal justice history were gathered from file review and self-report. Linear and negative binomial regressions were used to test associations of interest. In both samples, the frequency of prior criminal justice involvement was over 50%. The current results indicate there is a significant, positive association between measures of criminal risk and psychiatric symptoms. These findings highlight the need to address the reciprocal association between mental illness and criminal risk among people receiving inpatient psychiatric treatment with appropriate assessment and treatment.

The therapeutic working alliance is an important factor in producing treatment change and positive therapeutic outcomes for people with mental illness, yet little is known about the working alliance's role in treatment change in people with mental illness that is justice involved. In addition to treating the mental illness symptoms of justice-involved people with mental illness, addressing factors known to predict criminal behavior (including criminal thinking) could optimize posttreatment outcomes and reduce future justice involvement. This study examines the role of the working alliance in treatment change in a clinical treatment sample of 265 adult male and female justice-involved people with mental illness and substance use disorders completing probation sentences in a residential treatment facility.Repeated measures moderation analyses were used to test participants' reported working alliance as a moderator of change from pre- to posttreatment scores of self-reported mental illness symptoms and criminal thinking.The working alliance significantly moderated reductions in depression, anxiety, anger, and manic symptoms (R 2 ranging from .03 to .09), and general, reactive, and current criminal thinking (R 2 ranging from .04 to .11).These findings expand the literature on the relation between working alliance and changes in mental illness symptoms by testing this association in the understudied population of justice-involved people with mental illness; these results also suggest the working alliance is associated with changes in criminal thinking. Treatment providers working with justice-involved people with mental illness should assess and emphasize the development of a working alliance to maximize treatment change. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Research on the effects of restricted housing on inmate well-being indicates mild to moderate psychological effects and barriers opportunities for treatment and positive growth. Yet, there are few interventions tailored both to the needs of this high-risk population and to the institutional constraints of their environment. Given the financial and safety burdens associated with housing someone in segregation compared to the general population, correctional psychology should focus on developing programs that work. Using a prepost design, this study presents findings from a pilot investigation (N = 39) on the effects of a new, largely self-directed program (Stepping Up, Stepping Out [SUSO]) for inmates with mental and behavioral health concerns who are placed in restrictive settings. Results suggest that SUSO is associated with meaningful reductions in overall emotional distress and criminal attitudes; however, improvements in more stable criminal thinking patterns (i.e., distorted cognitions that are used to justify and support antisocial behavior; see Walters, 2012) were not observed. Overall, posttreatment working alliance was rated favorably by program participants. Demographic and preintervention comparisons between program completers and dropouts are also reported. Though preliminary findings suggest SUSO is a promising intervention for alleviating distress and aspects of criminal risk for inmates placed in restricted housing, future research should assess fidelity and engagement leading to a randomized controlled trial to determine the effectiveness of this program. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

[Correction Notice: An Erratum for this article was reported online in Psychological Services on Oct 8 2020 (see record 2020-75253-001). In the article, the authors listed the wrong version of a measure in the Method section of Study 2. The article should have listed PICTS-Layperson-Short Form (PICTS-L-SF) instead of the PICTS-Short Form (PICTS-SF) as the measure used. The correct citation for the measure appears in the erratum.] Corrections research literature is replete with treatment and intervention outcome studies but lacking empirical examinations of the process of change in justice-involved populations. The current studies expand upon previous outcome evaluations of Changing Lives and Changing Outcomes (CLCO), a treatment program for justice-involved persons with mental illness, by using process research designs to examine therapeutic mechanisms of change. Study 1 used CLCO participants' (n = 264) pre and post module quizzes to examine differences in content retention between Mental Illness, Criminalness, and Both mental illness and criminalness domains to determine if participants differentially learn treatment content. In Study 2, 1 CLCO module was administered to 9 groups of adult men on probation in a residential treatment facility (n = 4 to 8 per group) in 3 iterations: (a) Mental Illness-only content (n = 16), (b) Criminalness-only content (n = 20), (c) Full module (mental illness and criminalness content; n = 22). Results for both studies indicated significant treatment gains across outcome measures of interest (namely content retention and symptomology). Contrary to expectations in Study 1, effect sizes of Mental Illness and Criminalness content retention were similar, suggesting there are not differential effects in the magnitude of content retained between the 2 domains. In Study 2, the integration of mental illness and criminalness content produced greater global improvement than focusing on mental illness or criminalness alone. These results underscore the necessity and effectiveness of integrating mental illness and criminalness in the treatment of justice-involved persons with mental illness. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Recent studies have indicated variable reductions in criminal thinking for justice-involved persons with mental illness exposed to cognitive-behavioral treatments. To date, however, no studies have identified risk factors for limited response or modeled observed disparities in responsivity to interventions aimed at reducing criminal thinking. Using an archival data set of 162 probationers with a dual diagnosis who were exposed to

Interventions that focus on the psychiatric and criminogenic needs of justice-involved persons with mental illness are rare. A Treatment Manual for Justice Involved Persons with Mental Illness: Changing Lives and Changing Outcomes (CLCO) was developed specifically for meeting these co-occurring needs. Although results from an initial evaluation indicated that CLCO successfully resulted in reduced symptomatology and some aspects of criminal risk, much additional work examining the effectiveness of CLCO remains to be done. The present evaluation examined the extent to which offenders gained knowledge (i.e., content retention) throughout the program, the extent to which content retention was predictive of program completion, and the extent to which treatment engagement (i.e., session attendance and homework completion) was predictive of program completion. Participants consisted of male and female felony offenders in a residential treatment facility (n = 130), and dually diagnosed male offenders in a residential treatment facility (n = 39). Results indicated that participants in this intervention retained treatment content, and this content retention was predictive of treatment completion. Implications of these findings suggest that CLCO is a promising new intervention for justice-involved persons with mental illness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles-Short Form (PICTS-SF) is an abbreviated 35-item version of the PICTS, a measure of cognitions that support a criminal lifestyle. Despite use in research and clinical work, the PICTS-SF’s psychometric properties have not been tested. Using two archival datasets, we analyzed the PICTS-SF’s reliability and structural validity in multiply imputed data from adult males and females on probation in a residential treatment facility ( n = 514). We also tested the PICTS-SF’s reliability and discriminant and postdictive validities among adult males in administrative segregation in prison ( n = 95). We found evidence for the PICTS-SF’s internal consistency (α and ω ≥ .89), structural validity (CFI = .90, RMSEA = .05), discriminant validity (.22 ≤ r ≤ .39), and postdictive validity for receiving disciplinary infractions (incident rate ratio = 1.04). These results support the PICTS-SF’s use in research, and qualified use in clinical applications.

Suicide risk is elevated among psychiatric inpatients; however, research has not examined moderators of the associations between perceived social support and thwarted belongingness (TB) and perceived burdensomeness (PB), such as involvement with criminal associates. Adult psychiatric inpatients (

Although measures for assessing mental health functioning and criminogenic need exist independently, there remains a need for an integrated measure that assesses both constructs simultaneously. The Service Needs Inventory (SNI) was developed to identify aspects of mental health functioning and criminogenic needs of criminal justice-involved persons with mental illness (CJ-PMI). In this multistudy series, Studies 1 (n = 66 male probationers) and 2 (n = 185 male probationers) conducted item analysis and reliability analysis of the eight SNI subscales: Criminal History, Antisocial Attitudes and Associates, Positive Psychotic Symptomology, Social Functioning, Social Networking, Substance Abuse, Negative Affect, and Traumatic History. The SNI was reduced from 197 to 158 items and internal consistency values for the subscales ranged from .76 to .93 in Study 1. In Study 2 the SNI was further reduced from 158 to 94 items; all original subscales were retained, and internal consistency values for the subscales ranged from .60 to .84. Test-retest reliability for the measure over a 2-week interval was high (r = .91). Study 3 (n = 66 participants from Study 1) provided preliminary examination of concurrent validity with Pearson's correlation coefficients demonstrating medium to large associations (r = .41-.67) with their respective reference measure. It is anticipated that the SNI can be used for research as well as clinical use in a variety of forensic and correctional settings to increase the efficiency of assessment procedures and effectively identify service needs of CJ-PMI. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Individuals forensically committed to a state hospital are at an increased risk of suicide; however, there is extremely limited research examining suicide risk estimates and risk factors among inpatients deemed not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI). This study aimed to determine (a) rates of suicidal ideation history, suicide attempt history, and current distress due to suicidal ideation, and (b) the associations between psychiatric symptom severity, criminal risk factors, and suicide risk. NGRI inpatients (n = 207) from 2 state hospitals were administered assessments of psychiatric symptom severity and criminal risk factors (i.e., criminal tendencies and antisocial personality traits). Results indicated 46.4% of participants reported at least 1 previous suicide attempt, 58% reported previous suicidal ideation, and 10.1% reported some level of current distress due to suicidal ideation. Binary logistic regression results indicated psychiatric symptom severity, not criminal tendencies or antisocial personality traits, was associated with a greater likelihood of current distress due to suicidal ideation. There was a significant interaction between criminal tendencies and antisocial personality, which indicated that individuals higher in criminal tendencies and lower in antisocial personality traits are predicted to have the greatest probability of reporting current distress due to suicidal ideation. Additionally, psychiatric symptom severity and antisocial personality traits were associated with a greater likelihood of a suicide attempt history, whereas criminal tendencies were associated with a decreased likelihood. Clinical implications are discussed, particularly the need for suicide risk assessments and management to consider both psychiatric symptoms and criminal risk factors. (PsycINFO Database Record

Research suggests it is important to consider criminogenic needs among individuals with severe mental illness. This study aimed to determine the severity of criminal thinking in community-based clinical samples, understand the association between criminal thinking and psychiatric and criminal justice outcomes, and compare these associations between consumers enrolled in Assertive Community Treatment (ACT) and Forensic Assertive Community Treatment (FACT) programs. Participants ( N = 234) were male and female consumers enrolled in ACT and FACT programs in five states. Results revealed no significant differences in criminal thinking when comparing participants by program type or history of criminal justice involvement. There were significant positive relations between general criminal thinking and psychiatric symptomatology and the number of lifetime arrests, a negative association between recovery attitudes and general criminal thinking, and ACT participants reported a greater number of lifetime psychiatric hospitalizations than FACT participants. Result implications are discussed with specific reference to treatment programming.

The interpersonal theory of suicide posits that thwarted belongingness (TB) and perceived burdensomeness (PB) increase suicide ideation; however, studies have found mixed results regarding this hypothesis among psychiatric inpatients. This study aimed to (a) demonstrate how assessing TB and PB using the Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire (INQ) can provide clinically useful information and (b) investigate how statistical methodology may impact the clinical application of the INQ. Participants were 139 (Sample 1) and 104 (Sample 2) psychiatric inpatients. In both samples, ordinal logistic regression results indicated TB and PB, separately, were significant predictors of suicide ideation-related outcomes; however, when examined as simultaneous predictors, TB was no longer a significant predictor. The interaction between TB and PB was not significant for either sample. Despite this, TB and PB scores provided clinically relevant information about suicide ideation-related outcomes. For example, the highest scores on TB and PB indicated a 93% and 95% chance of having some level of distress due to suicide ideation (Sample 1), a 91% and 92% chance of having some level of desire for death, and a 79% and 84% chance of having some level of desire for suicide, respectively (Sample 2). This study also proposes clinical cutoff scores for the INQ (for TB and PB, respectively, cutoff scores were 22 and 17 for distress due to suicide ideation, 33 and 17 for desire for death, and 31 and 22 for desire for suicide). Although these results indicate that multicollinearity between TB and PB may create interpretational ambiguity for clinicians, TB and PB may each be useful separate predictors of suicide ideation-related outcomes in psychiatric inpatient settings and should be incorporated into suicide risk assessment. Key practitioner message The 15-item Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire (an assessment of thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness) should be incorporated into suicide risk assessment. Among psychiatric inpatients, greater thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness, as separate predictors, were associated with increased levels of distress due to suicide ideation, desire for death, and desire for suicide. The highest scores on thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness indicated a 79% to 95% chance of experiencing an elevated level of distress due to suicide ideation, desire for death, or desire for suicide. Recommended clinical cutoff scores were provided. For example, thwarted belongingness cutoff score of 31 and perceived burdensomeness cutoff score of 22 maximized the sensitivity and specificity of the INQ to detect some level of desire for suicide.

Individuals with mental health diagnoses, as well as those involved in the criminal justice system, experience a number of barriers in the recovery and reintegration progress, including access to stable, prosocial employment opportunities. Employment for these populations is important for establishing financial security, reducing unstructured leisure time, increasing self-worth, and improving interpersonal skills. However, research has demonstrated that individuals with psychiatric and/or criminal backgrounds may experience stigmatizing attitudes from employers that impede their ability to find adequate work. This study aimed to evaluate stigmatizing beliefs toward hypothetical applicants who indicated a mental health history, a criminal history, or both, as well as the effectiveness of psychoeducation in reducing stigma. Participants consisted of 465 individuals recruited from a large university who completed a series of online questions about a given applicant. Results of this study varied somewhat across measures of employability, but were largely consistent with extant research suggesting that mental illness and criminal justice involvement serve as deterrents when making hiring decisions. Overall, psychoeducation appeared to reduce stigma for hiring decisions when the applicant presented with a criminal history. Unfortunately, similar findings were not revealed when applicants presented with a psychiatric or a psychiatric and criminal history. Implications and limitations of these findings are presented, along with suggestions for future research.

This study examines the relationship between behavioral health problems and criminogenic thinking, aggression, self-control, and hopelessness, controlling for other demographic and criminal behavior characteristics among incarcerated persons. Male ( n = 3,986) and female ( n = 218) inmates expected to be released within 24 months from prisons affiliated with a northeastern state department of corrections completed the Criminal Sentiments Scale–Modified, Buss–Perry Aggression Questionnaire Short-Form, Brief Self-Control Scale, and Beck Hopelessness Scale. Results indicated that behavioral health variables were significantly and substantially correlated with antisocial thinking, aggression, self-control, and hopelessness. For male inmates, serious mental illness and substance abuse problems significantly increased antisocial attitudes, aggression, and hopelessness scores and decreased self-control scores. In preparing incarcerated persons with and without mental illnesses for reentry to the community, it is critical to develop and implement evidence-based interventions that respond to attitudinal and emotional risk factors that predict relapse and recidivism.

The effectiveness of specialty courts has been well established in the literature; however, previous studies have not taken into account referral biases that may exist based on offenders' race, socioeconomic status (SES), attorney status, and so forth. The current study hypothesized that (a) Participants who are racially diverse, of lower SES, and represented by privately retained attorneys would be referred less frequently to specialty courts, and (b) Participants in specialty courts would evidence reductions in missed court appointments and failed urinary analyses (UAs) compared with peers not enrolled in specialty courts. Participants (N = 274) were probationers who were involved in 1 of 3 specialty court programs (i.e., drug, driving while intoxicated [DWI], or reentry courts) or a matched sample of probationers not in specialty court services. Results indicated that, in general and with few exceptions, specialty courts did not have differential referral rates based on offender demographics including race, ethnicity, SES, or attorney status (court appointed vs. privately retained). Results examining the effectiveness of the specialty courts were mixed. Participants in the in-prison treatment program reentry court missed a greater proportion of scheduled court meetings than did their matched sample counterparts; however, the other specialty court programs did not significantly differ from their matched-sample counterparts. Participants in the DWI court had a significantly smaller proportion of UA failures to total UAs than did their matched sample peers; however, the drug court and reentry court programs did not significantly differ from their matched sample counterparts. Implications, future directions, and limitations are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

The use of telepsychology, such as videoconferencing (VC) systems, has been rapidly increasing as a tool for the provision of mental health services to underserved clients in difficult to access settings. Inmates detained in restrictive housing appear to be at an increased risk of experiencing emotional and behavioral disturbances compared to their general population counterparts, yet they are less likely to receive appropriate treatment due to security constraints. The primary purpose of this article is to describe the process of implementing a novel telepsychology intervention specifically designed to offer group therapy to high-security, administratively segregated inmates. In addition, preliminary results on treatment and therapeutic process outcomes in a sample of 49 participants are reported. Although some evidence indicated that telepsychology was less preferred than in-person sessions, group differences on measures of psychological functioning and criminal thinking were not found across 3 conditions (telepsychology, in-person, and a no-treatment control). Furthermore, a number of limitations associated with program implementation and study design suggest that results be interpreted with caution and should not be used to discount the use of telepsychology as a viable treatment delivery option. Recommendations for future development and evaluation of telepsychological programs are discussed within the context of correctional settings and beyond. (PsycINFO Database Record

The purpose of this research synthesis was to examine treatment effects across studies of the service providers to offenders with mental illness. Meta-analytic techniques were applied to 26 empirical studies obtained from a review of 12,154 research documents. Outcomes of interest in this review included measures of both psychiatric and criminal functioning. Although meta-analytic results are based on a small sample of available studies, results suggest interventions with offenders with mental illness effectively reduced symptoms of distress, improving offender's ability to cope with their problems, and resulted in improved behavioral markers including institutional adjustment and behavioral functioning. Furthermore, interventions specifically designed to meet the psychiatric and criminal justice needs of offenders with mental illness have shown to produce significant reductions in psychiatric and criminal recidivism. Finally, this review highlighted admission policies and treatment strategies (e.g., use of homework), which produced the most positive benefits. Results of this research synthesis are directly relevant for service providers in both criminal justice and mental health systems (e.g., psychiatric hospitals) as well as community settings by informing treatment strategies for the first time, which are based on empirical evidence. In addition, the implications of these results to policy makers tasked with the responsibility of designating services for this special needs population are highlighted.

Certain thinking styles promote criminal behavior, and these criminogenic cognitions are not engaged in equally by all offenders. It is imperative to know which offenders are engaging in more criminogenic thinking so their problematic thinking can be targeted and altered during correctional treatment programming. In doing so, correctional mental health professionals may help reduce recidivism. In the current investigation, the researchers sought to identify offenders most likely to engage in criminogenic cognitions on the basis of status variables (i.e., demographic, incarceration, and mental health variables) using data from 595 adult male incarcerated offenders. Findings indicate that younger offenders, less educated offenders, Black and Hispanic offenders, single (i.e., not in a relationship) offenders, offenders without a violent index offense, offenders with a psychological disorder, and offenders not participating in mental health services all endorsed higher levels of some types of criminogenic cognitions. These findings have important implications for correctional mental health care practice toward criminal recidivism reduction.

The purpose of this study was to examine the national practices of psychotherapy services for male offenders with mental illness (OMI) in state correctional facilities. Participants consisted of 230 correctional mental health service providers from 165 state correctional facilities. Results indicated that mental health professionals provided a variety of services to OMI that can be conceptualized by six goals considered important in their work: mental illness recovery, emotions management, institutional functioning, re-entry, risk-need, and personal growth. Mental health professionals in this study generally viewed mental illness recovery, institutional functioning, and personal growth as significantly more important and spent more time focused on these goals than emotions management, re-entry, and risk-need. Mental health professionals tended to believe the services they provided were effective across four key treatment foci including mental illness, skill development, behavioral functioning, and criminogenic needs with more progress perceived in areas related to mental illness and skill development than their ability to effectively change behavioral functioning. Implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.

This study examined inmate attitudes toward treatment, mental health treatment utilization, and treatment effects that maximize treatment effectiveness. Participants consisted of 278 incarcerated male adult offenders from the Kansas Department of Corrections. Multiple linear regression analysis indicated that inmate attitudes toward treatment were predictive of the number of mental health treatment sessions (dosage) inmates received. Hierarchical linear regression analyses indicated positive help-seeking attitudes were associated with institutional behavior (decreased number and severity of disciplinary infractions) and scores on a measure assessing risk for future criminal behavior; however, the amount of mental health treatment an inmate received (treatment dosage) was associated with problematic institutional behavior (i.e., increased severity and number of disciplinary infractions). These results indicated that treatment dosage and behavioral outcomes were impacted by inmate attitudes toward treatment. As a result, correctional psychologists may be better able to predict which inmates will receive the most benefit from services. Implications of these findings for practitioners and policy makers are discussed.

This article presents the presidential address delivered by Robert D. Morgan during the 118th annual meeting of the American Psychological Association (APA). This address challenges us, as public service psychologists, to improve services currently offered and to be leaders among those providing mental health services in the public sector. To accomplish this task we must (a) return to our roots as social scientists, (b) rely on basic research to prove our worth as service providers, (c) integrate program evaluation as an essential component in our services, and (d) integrate public service psychology training opportunities at the academic level while developing research networks with academic training programs. Those of us in the public sector are essential health care providers for veterans, individuals that are criminal justice involved, hospitalized in community and state hospitals, and those living in Indian country. We also serve those in law enforcement who protect us. We are grass- roots service providers in agencies that are over- burdened and underfunded, and we work in systems that, quite frankly, often times make little sense. Our clients are underserved, they are marginalized, and they are desperately in need of services. Although we are able to help the individuals we serve, we can do better. What I want to discuss with you today are my thoughts on how we can and must do better. I will discuss our need to return to our roots as social scientists. I will then outline our role as health care providers in the public sector with a focus on using basic research to prove our worth in this health care market. I will share with you my thoughts on how we can improve the ser- vices we provide to our clients by integrating program evaluation into our work. Finally, I will discuss the role we, as trainers and super- visors, play in the future generation of public sector psychologists. We in Public Service psychology have cho- sen to work within the often burdensome bu- reaucracy of government to provide services to those who could not otherwise afford or have access to the mental health services they need. We serve those in law enforcement where it has long been recognized that the occupational stress of policing contributes to rates of suicide among this group that is twice that of the gen- eral population (Forastiere et al., 1994). If we do not provide services for the individuals that protect us on a daily basis, who will? For my home section, criminal justice, did you know there are currently three times more persons with mental illness in state and federal correc- tional facilities than psychiatric hospitals (Abramsky & Fellner, 2003)? Similar crises are prevalent in all sectors of public service and psychologists must be at the forefront in serving individuals and developing interventions tai- lored to the unique needs of these individuals. If we do not, who will? If we do not develop services tailored to the specific needs of these individuals, then who?

To examine the prevalence of criminal thinking in mentally disordered offenders, incarcerated male (n = 265) and female (n = 149) offenders completed measures of psychiatric functioning and criminal thinking. Results indicated 92% of the participants were diagnosed with a serious mental illness, and mentally disordered offenders produced criminal thinking scores on the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) and Criminal Sentiments Scale-Modified (CSS-M) similar to that of non-mentally ill offenders. Collectively, results indicated the clinical presentation of mentally disordered offenders is similar to that of psychiatric patients and criminals. Implications are discussed with specific focus on the need for mental health professionals to treat co-occurring issues of mental illness and criminality in correctional mental health treatment programs.

There are several strategies, or models, for combining the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) validity indicators to detect malingered psychiatric symptoms. Some scholars have recommended that an elevated F (Infrequency) score should be followed by the inspection of Fp (Infrequency—Psychopathology), whereas a recent meta-analysis indicated that Fp and Ds (Gough’s Dissimulation Scale) should be examined. For correctional settings, one model of malingering suggests that F, Fp, and F - K (Gough’s Dissimulation Index) should be inspected for one or more elevated scores. Although a large body of research has examined malingering detection with the MMPI-2, this research has typically focused on the contributions of individual validity indicators to differentiate malingered from genuine psychiatric symptoms. Therefore, the current study compared these models of malingering detection on the MMPI-2. Inmate simulators were contrasted with inmates who were hospitalized for psychiatric treatment. Results from classification and logistic regression analyses supported the sequential use of F and Fp in malingering detection.

The authors examined the relationship between criminal thinking factors of control, cognitive immaturity, and egocentrism, and offender characteristics (i.e., age, education, sentence length, time served, reception of mental health services) in 435 adult male offenders. Results of a canonical correlation analysis identified 1 significant and meaningful relationship between a criminal thinking set containing all 3 factors and an offender characteristic set containing all characteristics except for age. Higher levels of criminal thinking on all 3 factors were associated with more education, longer sentence length, more time served, and lack of reception of mental health services. Implications for providing treatment with offenders that targets reducing criminal recidivism and future directions for investigation into the relationship between dynamic recidivism risk factors and offender characteristics are discussed.

The MMPI-2 Malingering Discriminant Function Index (M-DFI) was designed to detect malingerers educated about MMPI-2 validity indicators. However, given current attorney practices, the clinical utility of the M-DFI lies in its ability to detect examinees who are cautioned about the indicators. In this study, we compared 45 inmate simulators cautioned to avoid detection on the MMPI-2 with 46 psychiatric inmates who completed the MMPI-2 under standard instructions. Logistic regression analyses indicated that although the M-DFI performed better than several individual indicators, results were mixed for combinations of indicators, and the M-DFI did not outperform different sets of existing indicators. These findings support existing strategies to detect malingering on the MMPI-2. We discuss considerations concerning the clinical applicability of M-DFI.

In corrections, where staffing limitations tax an overburdened mental health system, telemental health is an increasingly common mode of mental health service delivery. Although telemental health presents an efficient treatment modality for a spectrum of mental health services, it is imperative to study how this modality influences key elements of the treatment experience. In this study, the authors compared inmates' perceptions of the working alliance, postsession mood, and satisfaction with psychiatric and psychological mental health services delivered through 2 different modalities: telemental health and face-to-face. Participants consisted of 186 inmates who received mental health services (36 via telepsychology, 50 via face-to-face psychology, 50 via telepsychiatry, and 50 via face-to-face psychiatry). Results indicate no significant differences in inmates' perceptions of the work alliance with the mental health professional, postsession mood, or overall satisfaction with services when telemental health and face-to-face modalities were compared within each type of mental health service. Implications of these findings are presented.

This study examined the role of romantic and/or intimate relationships on female offenders’ well-being and institutional behavior while incarcerated. Relationship satisfaction and social support were additional variables examined for association with well-being. Participants were 211 adult female inmates from a midwestern department of corrections. Results indicated increased anger, hostility, and number of disciplinary infractions for female inmates involved in romantic relationships as compared to those not involved in relationships. Findings also indicated increased anger and punishments for inmates in romantic relationships with females within the prison as compared to those in romantic relationships with males outside of the prison. Relationship satisfaction and social support did not significantly predict well-being or institutional behavior. Implications of the current findings are discussed.

Recent years have seen the incorporation of telepsychology into poorly accessed, rural, and underserved settings, including criminal justice and substance abuse treatment. A systematic search of the literature on telepsychological and related services with justice-involved and substance abuse clients revealed numerous descriptive reports, but few empirical studies. The results of 3 studies of criminal justice participants and 2 studies of substance-abuse participants were subjected to a series of 5 outcome-specific meta-analyses (mental health symptoms, therapeutic processes, program engagement, program performance, and service satisfaction). These 5 studies, all of which utilized a comparison group, contributed a total of 342 participants and 14 total effect sizes. Summary data on 3 additional uncontrolled studies are also presented. Results indicated that telepsychological outcomes were at least comparable with in-person outcomes. This review serves as an initial reference for clinicians and policymakers working with criminal justice and substance abuse clients, but also highlights the need for more rigorous scientific investigation into the nuances of telepsychological practice.

The inclusion of prison based group psychotherapy in this special issue is timely. Given the continued rise in prison populations, a premium is placed on identifying efficient, yet effective prison based interventions. One option for offender rehabilitation is group psychotherapy. As such, the aim of this paper is to review what we already know about the implementation of group psychotherapy and to identify what we need to learn. Within the context of correctional mental health treatment, this manuscript reviews the current state of knowledge regarding the availability of group psychotherapy services to incarcerated offenders and the efficacy of group services. We will conclude with a discussion of six strategies for effective group therapy interventions with inmates.

This study was designed to identify important process and content goals from the perspective of inmates and compare these goals to the goals identified by group therapists in a previous study conducted by Winterowd, Morgan, and Ferrell (2001). Utilizing survey data from 156 incarcerated adult males, an initial confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the factor structure for inmates’ goal importance ratings did not precisely mirror the group therapists’ ratings in Winterowd et al. A subsequent exploratory factor analysis revealed a five-factor model with the following goals: Self-Exploration and Coping Skills; Group Relationship Building and Cooperation; Substance Abuse; Prosocial Behavior and Healthy Lifestyle; and Institutional Relationships. Overall, these goals match the primary goals identified as important by therapists in Winterowd et al. However, inmates did not appear to draw distinctions between some of the goals identified by therapists. Implications for group therapy with male inma...

With the increasing rise in the U.S. prison population, meeting the mental health needs of inmates before, during, and after incarceration remains an obstacle. What are the mental health experiences of inmates? For what types of problems are inmates willing to seek help, and what are the barriers to their service utilization? This study investigated inmates' attitudes and perceptions toward mental health services and examined whether these attitudes and perceptions vary with respect to ethnic group membership or among inmates of differing security levels. Implications of these findings for psychologists, including psychologists not employed in correctional settings, are highlighted.

A specialized Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2) validity scale was constructed to detect individuals who are knowledgeable about either depression or MMPI-2 detection strategies and who subsequently attempt to malinger depressive symptoms on the MMPI-2. The Malingered Depression (Md) scale consists of 32 items that discriminated college students who feigned depression from those who were genuinely depressed. Further information about the incremental validity and the utility of the Md scale was obtained in a cross-validation study with additional college students who feigned depression and a sample of students with clinically significant depressive symptoms. The results indicate that the Md scale possesses promising value in detecting malingered symptoms of depression.

This article discusses the application of interpersonal process-oriented group psychotherapy to offender populations. Group psychotherapy with offenders presents problems not encountered with other populations; thus, applying the group method requires special considerations. The particular focus of this article is on the relevance of therapeutic factors in group work with offenders, group process as it applies to work with offenders, and work with difficult clients.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of several variables that have led to inconsistent results in previous studies on correctional officer stress, as well as expand previous research by exploring the relationship of two new variables (i.e., occupational title and work station) with correctional officer stress. Participants in this study consisted of 250 correctional officers from a Southwestern state department of corrections. Results indicated that older and more educated officers reported increased levels of personal accomplishment, whereas less experienced officers and officers with increasing job responsibilities experienced increased levels of depersonalization and emotional exhaustion and decreased levels of personal accomplishment. Furthermore, gender comparisons indicated that female correctional officers were less likely to respond impersonally to inmates than their male counterparts. Implications and areas for future research are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of group psychotherapy with incarcerated offenders. Meta-analytic techniques were applied to 26 empirical studies that used a treatment group versus a control group. The outcome measures assessed in this study included institutional adjustment, anger, anxiety, depression, interpersonal relations, locus of control, and self-esteem. The results indicate that positive treatment effects were found for the use of group psychotherapy with incarcerated offenders across all outcomes. Supplemental analyses were also included to identify factors that contribute to the efficacy of group psychotherapy and indicate that the use of homework exercises resulted in significantly improved outcomes. Furthermore, participants mandated to treatment did not negatively influence the efficacy of group psychotherapy. Quantitative research synthesis, or meta-analysis, is a set of statistical procedures that allow empirical research from many sources (e.g., research articles) to be integrated for the purpose of creating generalizations (Glass, 1976). Metaanalytic reviews have been frequently utilized to evaluate the effectiveness of correctional programs and to identify what types of treatment programs work with offenders (e.g., Andrews et al., 1990; Lipsey, 1990; Losel, 1995); however, none of these reviews have focused specifically on the use of group psychotherapy with offenders. Group psychotherapy became increasingly popular as a treatment approach with incarcerated offenders in the 1950s because “group therapy has shown itself to be of real institutional value” (Abrahams & McCorkle, 1946, p. 464), and, currently, approximately 20% of male inmates in state correctional facilities receive group psychotherapy services (Morgan, Winterowd, & Ferrell, 1999). Unfortunately, the increased use of group psychotherapy in the past 50 years has not resulted in a parallel increase in research regarding the efficacy of its use. In fact, only 16% of mental health departments in state correctional facilities conduct group psychotherapy research (Morgan, Winterowd, & Ferrell, 1999). Thus, questions regarding the effectiveness of group psychotherapy with incarcerated offenders remain unanswered.

The purpose of this study was to identify important goals for group work with male inmates from the perspective of 162 group therapy providers and mental health program directors. A principal components analysis with an oblimin rotation resulted in eight goal factors for group work with adult male inmates accounting for 70% of the common variance. These factors included self-exploration and learning within a supportive group environment, group relationship building, substance abuse, learning healthier attitudes and behaviors, conformity, prosocial behavior, lifestyle, and institutional adjustment. Implications for group practice and research with male inmates are highlighted.

Experiment 1 examined whether the use of the DSM-III-R decision trees increased the accuracy of DSM-III-R diagnoses. Results indicated that the use of the decision trees interacted with the level of DSM-III-R experience to affect diagnostic accuracy. The use of the decision trees resulted in a modest increase in diagnostic accuracy for participants with less DSM-III-R experience; for participants with more DSM-III-R experience, the use of the decision trees had no significant effect on diagnostic accuracy. Experiment 2 examined whether the use of the DSM-III-R decision trees increased the accuracy and confidence and decreased the time of DSM-III-R diagnosis across participants with varying levels of DSM-III-R experience. The primary analyses consisted of a 3 × 2 × 2-multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to determine whether the use of the decision trees increased diagnostic accuracy and diagnostic confidence and decreased diagnostic time. Results indicated (1) the experienced participants made more accurate diagnoses than the less-experienced and no-experience participants; (2) the decision trees, combined with practice, increased class diagnostic accuracy and decreased diagnostic time; and (3) participants were more confident in their diagnosis when they used the decision trees than when they did not use the decision trees. Supplementary analyses consisted of two one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedures and indicated that participants' preference for and knowledge of how to use the decision trees did not significantly affect their diagnostic accuracy. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc J Clin Psychol 56: 73–88, 2000.

The purpose of this study is to evaluate group therapists’perceptions of therapeutic factors in psychotherapy groups for incarcerated male inmates. Participants (159 group therapy providers from 78 adult male state correctional facilities) completed a survey designed to assess their perceptions about (a) the relative importance of therapeutic factors as group goals, (b) the amount of group time spent discussing and/or processing therapeutic factors, and (c) the level of progress group members made on therapeutic factors. Interpersonal learning, universality, and imparting information appear to be highly valued by group therapists across the three questions mentioned above. Existential factors and corrective recapitulation of the primary family group were consistently rated significantly lower on the three questions of interest as compared to the other therapeutic factors. Implications of these findings and suggestions for further research are highlighted.

To assess the efficacy of an interpersonal process-oriented and cognitive-behavioral group psychotherapy program, 36 incarcerated male adults were assigned to either a treatment group (n = 20) or a no treatment control group (n = 16). Outcome measures consisted of paper-pencil self-report instruments, institutional behavioral data, and structured interviews with the group therapists (n = 3). Results indicated no significant changes in inmates' level of defensiveness, empathy, or institutional behavior; however, the inmates reported universally positive reactions to the treatment program. The group therapists also perceived the treatment program as efficacious, particularly in fostering a cohesive group atmosphere and increasing inmate responsibility for group leadership. Implications for practice and research are discussed.

Research has begun to elucidate that persons with mental illness become involved in the criminal justice system as a result of criminality and not merely because of their mental illness. This study aims to clarify the similarities and differences in criminal thinking and psychiatric symptomatology between persons with mental illness who are and are not criminal justice involved. Male and female (n = 94) participants admitted to an acute psychiatric facility completed measures to assess criminal thinking (i.e., Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles and Criminal Sentiments Scale-Modified) and psychiatric symptomatology (Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-Third Edition). In addition to the inpatient sample, 94 incarcerated persons with mental illness from a previously conducted study were selected based on their match with the current sample on several key demographic and psychiatric variables. The results of this study indicated that hospitalized persons with mental illness with a history of criminal justice involvement evidenced similar thinking styles to persons with mental illness who were incarcerated. Persons with mental illness without criminal justice involvement evidenced fewer thinking styles supportive of a criminal lifestyle than the incarcerated sample. Furthermore, the persons with mental illness sample with no history of criminal justice involvement showed significantly lower levels of psychopathology shown to be risk factors for criminal justice involvement (e.g., antisocial personality, drug dependence, alcohol dependence). These findings have implications for offender-type classification, development of targeted treatment interventions, and program placement.

Archival data were collected from 98 male inmates at a psychiatric inpatient unit to examine the utility of the Multiscale Feigning Index (MFI) as a proposed feigning index for the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI). MFI was compared with existing PAI feigning indices, Malingering (MAL), Negative Impression Management (NIM), and Rogers Discriminant Function (RDF), using performance on the Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) as the feigning criterion. Regression analyses revealed that MFI was a stronger predictor of SIRS outcome than NIM, MAL, and RDF. In addition, NIM, MAL, and RDF did not add substantial incremental validity to MFI in predicting SIRS outcome. Receiver operating characteristic analyses revealed sensitivity of 68.89% and specificity of 94.34% at an MFI cutoff of more than 76, which compared favorably with the utility of NIM, MAL, and RDF.

This study explored criminal thinking styles and feelings of aggression and hopelessness among male and female inmates who reported mental disorders and those who did not.A total of 4,204 respondents (3,986 males and 218 females) who were expected to be released from prison within 24 months completed an hour-long audio computer-assisted self-interview survey that included the Beck Hopelessness Scale, Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire Short-Form, and Criminal Sentiments Scale-Modified. Weights were constructed to adjust the sampled population to the full population of the prison.A mental disorder was reported by 19.8% of male and 46.1% of female participants, with 6.6% of males and 19.4% of females reporting a serious mental disorder. The criminal thinking patterns of male and female inmates who reported mental disorders were consistent with those of inmates who reported no mental disorders; however, levels of criminal attitudes were significantly higher among males reporting serious mental disorders than males reporting other mental disorders or no disorders. Inmates reporting mental disorders scored significantly higher on measures of aggression and hopelessness.Results of this study suggest that inmates who report mental disorders have antisocial attitudes consistent with inmates who do not report mental disorders but have levels of aggression and hopelessness that are higher than their counterparts who do not report mental disorders. These findings are vital to the development of evidence-based interventions that respond accurately and holistically to the complex constellation of needs among persons with mental disorders who are involved in the justice system.

The Measure of Offender Thinking Styles (MOTS) was originally developed to examine the structure of dysfunctional thinking exhibited by criminal offenders. In the initial investigation, a three-factor model of criminal thinking was obtained using the MOTS. These factors included dysfunctional thinking characterized as Control, Cognitive Immaturity, and Egocentrism. In the present investigation, the stability of the three-factor model was examined with a confirmatory factor analysis of the revised version of the MOTS (i.e., MOTS-R). In addition, the internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and convergent validity of the MOTS-R were examined. Results indicated that the three-factor model of criminal thinking was supported. In addition, the MOTS-R demonstrated reliability and convergent validity with other measures of criminal thinking and attitudes. Overall, it appears that the MOTS-R may prove to be a valuable tool for use with an offender population, particularly because of the simple, intuitive structure of dysfunctional thinking that it represents.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between prison tattoos and the criminal lifestyle and recidivism. Participants consisted of 81 male inmates with prison tattoos (i.e., prison-themed or prison-made tattoos), 75 inmates with nonprison tattoos (e.g., animal tattoos, tattoos of ethnic origin), 52 male inmates with no tattoos, and 66 college students with tattoos. Results indicated that inmates with prison tattoos differed from inmates with nonprison tattoos, inmates without tattoos, and college students with tattoos with regard to criminal thinking styles, were at increased risk of recidivism, and presented more institutional behavioral problems, resulting in more disciplinary infractions. There were no significant differences between inmate groups with regard to number of convictions; however, additional group comparisons indicated that inmates with visible tattoos and antisocial-themed tattoos were at greater risk for recidivism and received more disciplinary infractions than inmates without visible or antisocial-themed tattoos. Implications of these findings are discussed.

This study employed the Basic Personality Inventory (BPI) to differentiate various types of dis-simulation, including malingered psychopathology and faking good, by inmates. In particular, the role of intelligence in utilizing symptom information to successfully malinger was examined. On admission to a correctional facility, 161 inmates completed the BPI under standard instructions and then again under instructions to fake good (n = 55) or to malinger psychotic (n = 35), posttraumatic stress disorder (n = 36), or somatoform (n = 35) psychopathology. Unlike symptom information, intelligence evidenced some support for increasing inmates’ effectiveness in malingering, although there was no relationship between higher intelligence and using symptom information to successfully evade detection. Overall, the BPI was more effective in detecting malingered psychopathology than faking good. Implications for the detection of dissimulation in correctional and forensic settings are discussed.