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The direct discharge of boron mud poses significant environmental hazards to soil and groundwater. Despite extensive research efforts, the reprocessing of boron mud has not yielded significant advancements. Recently, the development of magnesium cement has spurred interest in the reutilization of boron mud. However, the direct treatment of boron mud remains challenging, necessitating pre-treatment in most studies to achieve substantial results. Consequently, research on the direct incorporation of untreated boron mud is scarce. This study explores the feasibility of using uncalcined boron mud as a base material in basic magnesium sulfate cement (BMSC), composed of lightly calcined magnesia and magnesium sulfate heptahydrate. The effects of varying boron mud content on the compressive strength of the BMSC system were investigated. The results indicate that the 5·1·7 phase is the primary strength phase of BMSC. When the boron mud content is 30%, the uncalcined boron mud has a minimal impact on the formation of the 5·1·7 phase. Additionally, the 28 days compressive strength of BMSC-B30 showed a slight difference compared to the control group BMSC-C, registering at 66.7 MPa. TG-DSC analysis revealed that the presence of a small amount of boron mud inhibits the micro-expansion trend of the BMSC structure. Furthermore, XRD and SEM analyses confirmed that the addition of uncalcined boron mud does not significantly alter the phase structure of the 5·1·7 phase in BMSC. This study provides a foundational basis for the long-term development of direct boron mud treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effects of lithium slag and iron tailings on the hydration mechanism of Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) slag cement paste with the addition of 0.06% diethanol-isopropanolamine (DEIPA). This study examined the fluidity, compressive strength, pore solution pH, and hydration products of BOF slag-based composite cementitious materials. The results showed that DEIPA facilitated the conversion from ettringite (AFt) to monosulphate (AFm) and improved the early compressive strength of the BOF slag–cement mortar. Incorporating lithium slag into the DEIPA-containing BOF slag–cement system promoted AFt formation, increased calcium-silicate-hydrate production, and enhanced the microstructure. BOF slag, lithium slag, and iron tailings exhibit synergistic effects in cement pastes. BOF slag and lithium slag provided the reactive components SiO2 and Al2O3. In the early hydration stages, the iron tailings primarily served as fillers, accelerating the system's reactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alkali-activated cementitious materials, as an environmentally friendly cementitious material, can effectively reduce carbon emissions and improve the utilisation of solid wastes. However, traditional strong alkali activators have limitations such as high carbon emissions and poor safety. In order to overcome the defects of traditional strong alkaline activators and realise the high value-added use of calcium carbide residue (CCR), this paper adopts CCR as an alkaline activator to activate granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS)-steel slag (SS) cementitious systems for the preparation of alkaline-activated cementitious materials. The effects of CCR content and SS content on the compressive strength and working performance of CCR-GBFS-SS cementitious systems are analysed, along with the hydration process of CCR-GBFS-SS cementitious systems and the mechanism of action through the hydration products, their chemical structure and their microscopic morphology. The research results show that CCR-GBFS-SS cementitious systems have a 28-day compressive strength of 41.5 MPa and they can be controlled by the setting time; however, the flow performance is poor. The SS content can be increased to improve the flow performance; however, this will reduce the compressive strength. In CCR-GBFS-SS cementitious systems, CCR is the main driving force of hydration reactions, GBFS mainly provides active silica and aluminium and the amorphous C-(A)-S-H gel and ettringite formed by the synergistic action of multiple solid wastes are the main sources of compressive strength. With the extension of the curing time, the amount of hydration products in the cementitious systems gradually increases and the matrix of the cementitious systems gradually becomes denser. This study will provide a reference for the consumption of low-value solid waste such as CCR and the preparation of low-carbon cementitious materials from multi-component solid wastes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The preparation of cement-based supplementary cementitious materials is an important method for the efficient use of iron tailings and the reduction in CO2 emissions. The aim of this study is to improve the reactivity of iron tailings by mixing them with steel slag, slag, and fly ash through orthogonal tests to solve the problem that iron tailings cannot be utilised on a large scale. The compressive strength, hydration products, and microstructure of the iron tailings–cement-based supplementary cementitious materials were investigated using ICP-OES, XRD, TG, FTIR, and SEM. The results revealed that each solid waste raw material played a distinct role in the hydration reaction. In the iron tailings–cement-based supplementary cementitious materials system, steel slag provided Ca2+, OH−, and Si4+ ions, slag provided Ca2+ and Al3+ ions, fly ash contributed a significant amount of Ca2+ and Al3+ ions, and iron tailings offered more nucleation sites and some Si4+ ions for the hydration products. Moreover, there was a synergistic effect among these four materials, promoting the formation of hydration products such as ettringite, C-(A)-S-H gels, and others. When the proportion of IOTs:SS:FA:SL was 9:8:8:2, the highest 7 d compressive strength of cementitious material was 24.8 MPa. When the proportion of IOTs:SS:FA:SL was 9:6:8:4, the highest 28 d compressive strength of cementitious material was 35.0 MPa. This study provides a comprehensive solution for the utilisation of iron tailings and contributes to the high-value green utilisation of solid waste. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Utilizing a variety of solid wastes to prepare alkali-activated cementitious materials is one of the principal trends in the development of cementitious materials. Commonly used alkali activation precursors such as granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) and fly ash (FA) will be less available due to resource pressures. Supply limitation is an important reason to research alternative precursors. To realize the high value-added utilization of copper–molybdenum tailings (CMTs), this study adopted the modified sodium silicate solution as an alkaline activator to activate GBFS-FA-CMTs cementitious system to prepare alkali-activated cementitious materials. The influence of CMTs content on the compressive strength of GBFS-FA-CMTs cementitious system was analyzed, and the mechanism of GBFS-FA-CMTs cementitious system was also analyzed through hydration product types, physical phase composition, and microscopic morphology. The results indicated that a paste with the incorporation of CMTs, S50F30C20 (50% GBFS, 30% FA, 20% CMTs), achieved the highest compressive strength of 79.14 MPa, which was due to the filling effect of the CMTs and the degree of participation in the reaction. Pastes with different contents of CMTs, while maintaining a constant CBFS content, exhibited similar strength development. Excessive amounts of CMTs could result in reduced compressive strength. Microstructural analysis revealed that the hydration products were structurally altered by the addition of CMTs. In addition to ettringite, quartz, C(-N)-S-H gel, and calcite, gaylussite was also formed; moreover, the mass of chemically bound water increased, and the microstructure of reaction products became denser. An excess of CMTs may restrict the growth of the hydration gel, leading to more microstructural defects. The study suggests that CMTs could enhance the compressive strength of hardened paste within an alkali-activated slag-fly ash system, possibly due to a filling effect and participation in the chemical reaction. This research confirms the feasibility of using CMTs in alkali-activated cementitious materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are some limitations in the application of tuff powder as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM). Exploring its feasibility in new fields will consume a large amount of silica-alumina mine solid wastes. This study has investigated the mechanical properties and mechanism in contact-hardening of tuff powder with a method of compression molding. The compressive strength of specimens was tested, and the X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TG), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) methods were used to reveal the mechanism of contact-hardening of tuff powder from a micro-perspective. The results indicated that the compressive strength of specimens was higher when activated by sodium hydroxide compared to calcium hydroxide. Compared to calcium hydroxide, the compressive strength of TFS20 and TFF20 activated by sodium hydroxide was improved by 20% and 23%, respectively. The hydration degree of tuff powder was very low, with a water–cement ratio (w/c) of 0.15, while the hydration degree of coal gangue powder was higher. The results of TGA and SEM indicated that the sodium hydroxide had a better activating effect on slag and fly ash. Therefore, more C-S-H gels were generated in those samples activated by sodium hydroxide. Furthermore, the structure of samples was more compacted, and there was a reduction of porosity by 10% and 11% for TFS20 and TFF20, respectively, especially the proportion of harmful pores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climatic conditions in plateau areas can enormously affect the properties and microstructure of cement-based materials. This research investigates the strength development and microstructural changes in magnesium phosphate cement (MPC) mortars in a plateau environment. Experiments were conducted in parallel in a plateau area (Lhasa) and a plain area (Chengdu) to evaluate the effects of the water-to-binder ratio (w/b = 0.12, 0.14 and 0.16) and sand-to-binder ratio (s/b = 0.5, 0.75 and 1) on the compressive and flexural strength of MPC mortars. At the same time, hydration products were characterized via XRD, TGA, and SEM/EDX micro-analyses, and the porosity of the materials was also analyzed via MIP. The results demonstrated that curing in a plateau environment resulted in a decrease in workability and yielded higher strength at an early age (before 1 day) but degraded the long-term (180-day) strength of MPC mortars when compared with curing in a plain environment, irrespective of w/b and s/b ratios. Unlike the plain group, the plateau group revealed the deterioration of microstructures over time, including the decrease in struvite content, the morphology change in struvite crystals, and the increase in porosity, which resulted in the degradation of mechanical properties between 1 and 180 days. The strength loss can be effectively alleviated at lower w/b and s/b ratios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exposure of concrete to acidic environments can cause the degradation of concrete elements and seriously affect the durability of concrete. As solid wastes are produced during industrial activity, ITP (iron tailing powder), FA (fly ash), and LS (lithium slag) can be used as admixtures to produce concrete and improve its workability. This paper focuses on the preparation of concrete using a ternary mineral admixture system consisting of ITP, FA, and LS to investigate the acid erosion resistance of concrete in acetic acid solution at different cement replacement rates and different water–binder ratios. The tests were performed by compressive strength analysis, mass analysis, apparent deterioration analysis, and microstructure analysis by mercury intrusion porosimetry and scanning electron microscopy. The results show that when the water–binder ratio is certain and the cement replacement rate is greater than 16%; especially at 20%, the concrete shows strong resistance to acid erosion; when the cement replacement rate is certain and the water–binder ratio is less than 0.47; especially at 0.42, the concrete shows strong resistance to acid erosion. Microstructural analysis shows that the ternary mineral admixture system composed of ITP, FA, and LS promotes the formation of hydration products such as C-S-H and AFt, improves the compactness and compressive strength of concrete, and reduces the connected porosity of concrete, which can obtain good overall performance. In general, concrete prepared with a ternary mineral admixture system consisting of ITP, FA, and LS has better acid erosion resistance than ordinary concrete. The use of different kinds of solid waste powder to replace cement can effectively reduce carbon emissions and protect the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, a type of fly ash and iron tailing powder were used as a binary supplementary cementitious material (SCM) and two different mechanically activated procedures, named coalescent activation and separated activation, were carried out to improve the pozzolanic reactivity. Then, three binary supplementary cementitious materials were used to replace 30 wt% of ordinary Portland cement to develop cemented mortars, and the compressive strength, hydration products, and micro-structure were studied. The experimental results indicated that the activated supplementary cementitious materials increased the compressive strengths of the mortars by 5.4% and 13.2%, negligibly changed the hydration product types, and impacted the quantity only. The application of SCMs also prolonged the setting time and decreased the hydration rate, profiting the application. Simultaneously, the micro-pore structure was ameliorated, and the porosity decreased. Therefore, comprehensively considering the improved mechanical behavior and inexpensive cost, the activated binary SCM can be considered an ecological and economical admixture, especially for the coalescent activation procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, the increasing of ultrafine-tailings increases the amount of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in cemented paste backfill (CPB), which leads to the rise of CPB cost and carbon emission. As a result, it is necessary to develop alternative binders. The present work focuses on the preparation of a new binder, which is activated by a mixture of calcined quarry dust (CQD) and NaOH at a mass ratio of 1:1. The results indicated that CQD/NaOH was more effective than using NaOH or CQD alone in activating blast furnace slag (BFS) and also showed better performance than OPC. The compressive strength of the CPB samples using 10% CQD/NaOH was around 3.78 MPa after curing for 90 days, around 42% higher than the OPC-based CPB samples. The reaction products of CQD/NaOH-activated BFS consisted mainly of C-(A)-S–H, hydrotalcite like phases (Ht), and M-S–H. The generation of Ht phases lowered the Al incorporation into the structure of C-S–H, resulting in lower average Al/Si ratio and mean chain length. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) plays a pivotal role in the transition of cement industry toward lower carbon emissions. However, the reliance on limited, non-renewable limestone and expensive, high-grade kaolinite presents notable challenges for LC3, requiring a balance between using lower-quality materials and maintaining high performance. To address this challenge, this study introduced an innovative LC3 mix by incorporating shell powder and self-ignition coal gangue as substitutes for traditional ingredients. The study found that shell powder significantly increased the early-age compressive strength of LC3 at 3 days, raising it to 20.4 MPa, although it restricted the space for further hydration product development. In contrast, introducing self-ignition coal gangue fine-tuned the hydration process, resulting in enhanced compressive strengths of 34.3 MPa and 45.2 MPa at 7 and 28 days, respectively. Additionally, Backscattered Electron (BSE) analysis revealed notable microstructural heterogeneity and introduced a new image processing-based method for evaluating microstructure, emphasizing the importance of adjusting phase compositions around inert particles and reducing inter-particle overlap to optimize LC3 performance. • Novel LC3 formulation leverages solid wastes for improved strength and sustainability. • Shell powder and self-ignition coal gangue identified as effective substitutes in LC3 matrix. • Potential for self-ignition coal gangue in optimizing LC3 carbon footprint. • New directions for enhancing LC3 using controllable particle metrics suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How to treat the iron tailings of mining solid waste with high value is an urgent problem on a global scale. In recent years, the application of iron tailings in the building materials industry has attracted the attention of many scholars. The conversion of iron tailings into green building materials helps achieve carbon neutrality and high-value utilization of solid waste, and promotes sustainable development. Although iron tailings have been extensively studied as supplementary cementitious materials, the performance of concrete is not ideal due to its low activity. In this study, the hybrid supplementary cementitious materials system was prepared by iron tailings, phosphorus slag, and steel slag, and the effects of supplementary cementitious materials type, iron tailings content, iron tailings grinding time, and supplementary cementitious materials content on concrete performance were studied. The compressive properties, iron tailings properties, pore structure, interfacial transition zone, and element distribution of hydration products of concrete were tested by compressive strength tests, X-ray Diffractometer (XRD), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP), Backscattering Electron Tests (BSE), and Energy Dispersive Spectrometer (EDS). The results show that further grinding improves the iron tailings activity. There is a synergistic mechanism between steel slag and phosphorus slag in the composite supplementary cementitious materials, which overcomes the low activity defect of iron tailings and produces concrete with a compressive strength exceeding 40 MPa. The composite supplementary cementitious materials can optimize the interfacial transition zone of the concrete interface and reduce the calcium–silicon ratio of the hydration products. However, it will deteriorate the pore structure of the concrete matrix, cause part of the concrete matrix to be damaged and lead to a loss of compressive strength, and the loss is acceptable. This work broadens the methods of comprehensive utilization of iron tailings and also provides a reference for a more detailed understanding of the properties of iron tailings-based concrete. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to control energy consumption and reduce pollution, the use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) instead of cement to produce green cementitious materials can save energy, reduce emissions and achieve sustainable development. This study demonstrates the possibility of developing SCMs with iron tailings (IOTs), fly ash (FA) and ceramic powder (CP) ternary system, as well as the optimization and improvement scheme of gelation activation. The effects of activator dosage, mix ratio and substitution rate on mechanical properties of ternary SCMs system were investigated. The formation and evolution of hydration products were analyzed by differential thermogravimetric analysis (DTA) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results of the study show that there is synergy in the system. The results show that there is synergy in the system and the hydration reaction is sufficient. At the substitution rate of 30%, the doping ratio of IOTs, CP and FA is 1:2:2 and the Ca(OH)2 is 0.6%, the strength reaches 39.9 MPa and the activity index is 91.5%, which can provide a basis for the application and more in-depth study of IOTs multi SCMs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A considerable amount of carbon dioxide is released during the preparation of traditional Portland cement, which is not in conformity with the sustainable road. Developing supplementary cementitious material (SCMs) and reducing cement consumption are safe ways to solve this problem. Iron tailings (IOTs), a type of mining waste from the beneficiation process of iron ore concentrate, can be used as SCMs in concrete. In order to tackle the problem of low compressive performance of IOTs as SCMs in concrete, this study develops a multi-SCMs system based on IOTs. Mechanical properties and microstructure of samples with different activator contents and ratios were analyzed by compressive strength, differential thermal–thermal gravimetric analysis (DTA-TG), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results show that the compressive strength of the composite gel blocks in different gel systems changed as follows: ternary SCMs system > binary SCMs system > unary SCMs system. The ternary SCMs system (IOTs: Steel slag(SS):Phosphorus slag(PS) = 1:2:2) without activator was added so that it resulted in the highest compressive strength in multi-SCMs system. With the increase in the content of activators, the compressive strength with ternary SCMs system shows a decreasing trend. It is well known from DTA-TG, as well as SEM, that NaOH and Na2SiO3 have an inhibitory effect on the secondary hydration reaction and inhibit the formation of C-S-H gel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research investigates the effects of Na2SO4 and Na2CO3 on the mechanical and hydration properties of high-volume fly ash (FA) cement (HFC) at three curing temperatures: 25°C, 40°C, and 60°C. Setting time, compressive strength, reaction kinetics, phase assembles, and pore structure were explored. The research found that the hydration of HFC was significantly promoted by the chemical activators at all temperatures. At 25°C, the incorporation of Na2CO3 and Na2SO4 decreased the initial setting time by 59% and 50%, respectively, compared to the control sample. This was accompanied by increased heat release from the isothermal calorimetry tests. At the same time, the introduction of Na2CO3 (HFC-C) increased the early compressive strength by 40%, higher than that of samples with Na2SO4 addition (HFC-S). While reduced compressive strength was noticed in HFC-C after curing for a long time, resulting from the increased porosity. Furthermore, temperature rise reduced the contribution index (Ci) to the strength development of both HFC-C and HFC-S. On the other hand, the presence of Na2SO4 contributed to the formation of more ettringite (AFt), while no AFt was detected after the addition of Na2CO3. Increasing the curing temperature did not strongly change the phase assembles of the hydration products, although the amount of AFt content was observed to increase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Introducing FA to adjust fresh behaviors of OPC-MK cementitious material system. • The synergistic effects of SCMs indicate the filling effect and pozzolanic reaction. • Hydration products of OPC-MK-FA system were beneficial to the Al-rich system. • Modification of gels and pores are the contributions of FA to OPC-MK system. The fresh behavior of Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)-Metakaolin (MK) cementitious material system is relatively undesirable and needs to be used in conjunction with other materials and comprehends interaction mechanism to meet practical application specifications. The present work investigated the feasibility of using fly ash (FA) to modify the properties of MK cement and reported the effects of the interaction between MK and FA on the microstructure and hydration products. The results showed that the fluidity loss behavior and premature setting time for the cement-MK system was improved by adding the appropriate amount of FA. Synergistic stacking and hydration effect of FA and MK in the ternary blend significantly yielded a more uniform mix, resulting in a matrix with a higher compressive strength and more compact structure. Besides, the addition of FA contributed to reduce the typical hydration product Ca/Si ratio and promoted the ability of gel products to absorb Al3+, which was beneficial to the Al-rich system such as OPC-MK system. This research provides the foundation for the long-term development of multi-based supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The high cost of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) limits the broad usage of cemented paste backfill (CPB). Additionally, improper disposal of arsenic-containing biohydrometallurgy waste (BW) can cause tremendous pollution to the environment. Consequently, BW is used to prepare an alternative cementitious material for CPB in this study. The effect of calcined oil shale residue (COSR) on the binder's characteristics was studied. The reaction kinetics of the binder in the presence of COSR were studied via the isothermal calorimeter test and the Krstulovic–Dabic model; mechanical strength and hydration product modifications due to the addition of COSR were also investigated. The leaching of hazardous elements from the binder was also investigated. The results showed that adding COSR reduced the flowability of fresh slurry and early-age compressive strength; however, adding 20 wt% COSR resulted in the highest later age compressive strength, thereby reaching ∼43.65 MPa after 60 days. The compressive strength of the CPB sample using the COSR20 as a binder may reach ∼87% of the OPC-based CPB sample. Furthermore, the presence of COSR had no significant effect on the phase assembles but changed the amount of ettringite (AFt) and calcium silicate aluminate hydrate (C-A-S-H). The results of this study show that the prepared binder could be used as an alternative to OPC in CPB. • BW and COSR were used to prepare a cementitious material for CPB. • COSR decreased the flowability of CPB slurry. • COSR favored the formation of ettringite. • Later-age strength was increased in the presence of 20 wt% COSR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper iron tailing sand (TS) are used as aggerate to develop ultra high-performance concrete (UHPC). The mix proportion of UHPC is designed and TS were added by 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% (wt.%, i.e., weight percentage) to replace natural river sand. Firstly, the influence of TS on the slurry behavior was carried out. The experimental result indicates that with the continuously increasing content of TS, the workability of slurry decreases, while the air content increases. Considering the workability, the optimal replacing dosage of TS should be less than 50%. Then, tests for the hardened specimens were taken. The compressive behavior and micro-porosity deteriorate with increasing content of TS, and the compressive strength had a positive linear relationship with the workability, which indicated that the decline the compressive behavior is mainly due to the loss of flowability. Finally, autogenous shrinkages of UHPC with different TS dosage were also tested. At the same time, the micro-structure of specimens was discussed, which was deteriorate with the increasing dosage of TS. Therefore, comprehensively considering the compressive behavior, micro-structure and shrinkage behavior, as much as 50% of the aggregate could be replaced by TS when developing UHPC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Iron ore tailings (IOT) were used to replace manufactured sand at different proportions to make UHPC mortars. • The compressive strength and permeability of UHPC mortars were investigated. • 40% subsitutiton of IOT exhibited the highest compressive strength. • The compressive strength ws comparable to the control when IOT content was up to 80%. • The addition of IOT enhanced the impermeability of UHPC mortars. Iron ore tailings (IOT) are discharged as waste after the beneficiation process to concentrate iron ore, which has triggered a series of environmental problems. The influence of IOT as a replacement for manufactured sand (MS) (0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100% by weight) on the compressive strength and permeability of UHPC mortars was investigated by multiple methods including scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). The results showed that 40% IOT replacement yielded the best performance, and 80% substitution of IOT was comparable to the control mix regarding compressive strength. Additionally, the impermeability improved with increasing IOT content. To reduce the cost of UHPC production and minimize environmental problems, it is feasible to use IOT as a fine aggregate to partly replace manufactured sand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Both mechanical and mechanochemical activation methods are effective to improve the chemical activity of iron ore tailings. • Less surface binding energy reflects less crystallinity and higher reactivity. • Ternary IOTs-based SCMs resulted in the comressive strength enhancement and pore structure refinement. The increasing concern for decarbonization calls for sustainable construction materials since carbon dioxide emissions from cement industries account for 8% of the total emissions. Incorporating municipal solid waste into concrete as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) is one of the fundamental ways to achieve urban sustainability. Iron ore tailings (IOTs), a type of mining waste from the beneficiation process of iron ore concentrates, can be used as SCMs via various activation methods. While activation of IOTs alone has been a topic of intensive research for years, there is a lack of comprehensive study on mechanical-chemical coupling activation of IOT-based ternary SCMs systems (IOT, fly ash, and ground granulated blast furnace slag) considering the utilization of other industrial by-products and waste. This study investigates the effect of grinding time and chemical activators on the properties of IOT-based ternary SCMs. XRD, XPS, DTA-TG, compression tests, Mercury intrusion porosimetry, and SEM were employed to investigate the crystal structure and crystallinity of IOTs, surface energy, mechanical properties, pore structure, and morphology of the hydration products of the ternary system. The results obtained from this study revealed that an increase in grinding time and chemical activators improved the activity index of IOTs-based ternary SCMs. In addition, Na 2 SiO 3 contributed the most to the activity index among the three types of activators. This work has expanded the possibility of utilizing IOT-based ternary SCMs via proper activation methods for sustainable construction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]