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Abstract: New environmental policy instruments (NEPIs) (market-based instruments and environmental agreements) have moved to the forefront of environmental policy in recent years. From an economic theory perspective, NEPIs offer substantial benefits over ‘command-and-control’ regulation, yet empirical evaluations of their deployment and performance remain rare. This paper argues for a strong geographical contribution to this research agenda, utilising cross-national comparisons and actor-oriented perspectives to provide critical assessment and refinement of established NEPI theory. To illustrate this potential, this paper examines United Kingdom and German climate policy, using postal surveys and semi-structured interviews to assess corporate, industry association and policy-maker views on the effectiveness of eco-taxes, tradable permits and agreements in curbing greenhouse-gas emissions. Divergences between theoretical and practitioner perspectives on NEPIs are discussed, leading to suggested strategies for enhancing the environmental effectiveness of market-based instruments. The influence of national policy styles on NEPI design and industry reactions to these instruments was also identified as severely under-represented within economic theories of environmental regulation. Whilst industry assessments of environmental policy are unavoidably coloured by vested interests, cross-national and actor-oriented analyses nevertheless provide important insights into processes of policy diffusion and the strengths and weaknesses of different NEPIs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In the literature on European integration liberal intergovernmentalism and multi–level governance are often presented as competing approaches. In this article, the value of both approaches’ claims with respect to describing the involvement of the subnational level in European policy–making is put to a test. Empirical data are drawn from the Belgian practice of preference formation and representation in the environmental policy sector. Finding that the federal governmental level is less unitary and monopolistic than LIG would predict, but also that the subnational level has not become a second level player in its in own right — as multi–level governance would claim, the article concludes that neither approach can be fully validated. It is suggested that especially multi–level governance is amended with insights from institutional theory in order to grasp the observed joint processes of preference formation and representation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article informs that the use of science in environmental policy is a primary goal of resource management and conservation that is relevant to issues at global, national, and local scales. Explicit calls for the inclusion of science in policy decisions are found at levels ranging from the United Nations to city governments. The debate about the relationship between science and policy centers on questions related to how scientific information is incorporated into public policy. It is largely believed that there are inherent differences between the fundamental structures and traditions of science and policy.

At various levels of environmental policy making there is a demand to translate polluting emissions into monetary units. In the so-called reduction cost approach, based upon policy targets, polluting emissions are expressed in monetary terms by determination of the marginal unit reduction cost at the emission target level. This approach provides shadow prices for emissions by which it can be established whether a certain measure or technology belongs to the most efficient set of measures by which the policy targets can be reached. This article argues that, if clear (generic) government targets such as national emission reduction targets exist for an emission, shadow prices derived by this method are to be preferred to shadow prices derived by other methods for decisions at the project (implementation) level. By application of the reduction cost approach, implementation decisions can be made that are both cost-effective and consistent with government policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we seek to advance current understanding of uneven convergence in the context of EU environmental policy, and specifically, the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). Using a large-sample, quantitative methodology, we examine three broad sets of determinants hypothesised to influence geographic patterns of policy convergence: (1) cross-national market integration; (2) compatibility between the domestic regulatory context and European policy requirements; and (3) bottom-up pressure from market and societal actors. Our analysis provides empirical support for all three hypothesised determinants. Measures of import-export ties, regulatory burden, past policy adoptions, environmental demand from civil society, and levels of economic productivity are all found to be statistically significant predictors of national EMAS counts. Against a backdrop of geographically diverse regulatory institutions, societal conditions, and trading relationships, we conclude that unevenness is an inevitable feature of Europeanisation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article investigates the link between environmental policy and human rights in Central Asia. Central Asia is faced with environmental threats such as the dessication of the Aral Sea, serious bio-diversity threats and the lack of regional cooperation over interstate water resources. Such impacts greatly affect human health, life, basic rights and security, hence the need for improvements in environment policy.

Most applications of cost-benefit analysis in environmental policy, and almost all the controversial cases, involve the use of contingent valuation (CV) surveys. There is now a relatively well-developed critique of CV as a method of public consultation on environmental issues. Theories of deliberative democracy have been invoked which question the individualistic, preference-based calculus of CV. A particular deliberative institution which has recently received much attention is the citizens' jury (CJ). While CJs and other deliberative institutions have come to be regarded as alternatives to CV, it is far from obvious in what sense this is true. The discussion begins by exploring the extent to which CV and CJ can be meaningfully compared. After specifying a limited sense in which this is possible, the paper goes on to assess the virtues of deliberation by reference to this comparison. Much of the assessment is made from the perspective of rational choice theory, because that approach has been influential amongst critics of deliberative democracy. The main aim is to develop an argument for the merits of deliberation, in terms which its critics must acknowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses the effects in the context of identifying the most appropriate willingness-to-pay elicitation treatment to evaluate the willing to pay for the various elements of multi-dimensional environmental policy. Elicitation strategies for multidimensional policies; Results of the empirical study conducted; Conclusions.

Wildlife especially large mammals such as elephants are an important part of an ecosystem providing various ecological functions and services, although they are often involved in human-wildlife conflict. The National Elephant Conservation Center (NECC) in the Pahang state of Peninsular Malaysia was established to ensure that the survival of the Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) in Peninsular Malaysia through direct management, as well as educational and public awareness activities. However, no entrance fee has been imposed since the establishment of the center in 1989 (32 years). This study aimed to determine public willingness to pay for an entrance fee in the NECC. By using the open-ended contingent valuation method (CVM), the mean public willingness to pay for an entrance fee in the NECC during the non-peak season amounted to RM4.65/person/visit whereas it was RM7.09/person/visit during the peak season. The study would serve as a reference for entrance fee implementation for a conservation center as a form of financial aid to sustain the center as well as highlight the importance of public engagement in elephant conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study primarily attempts to understand people's beliefs toward marine protected areas considering as a case study the National Marine Park of Alonissos, Northern Sporades in Greece in order to achieve its sustainability. Specifically, it aims to identify people's opinion about the utility of the park investigating also their beliefs in relation to socioeconomic characteristics. For this reason, a face‐to‐face survey of 200 randomly selected residents and visitors of the area was carried out. The research was structured according to the principles of the contingent valuation method. According to the empirical findings, the majority of respondents recognized the contribution of the park to preserve the monk seal and the natural environment. Moreover, they want the maintenance of the park and more specialized protection measures in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper is about how institutions determine choices and the importance of this for environmental policy. The model of individual rational choice from neoclassical economics is compared with the model of socially determined behavior. While in the first case, institutions are either exempted from or understood as mere economizing constraints on behavior, the latter perspective views institutions as basic structures necessary also to enable people to act. The paper develops a way to integrate the individualistic model into the wider perspective of social constructivism by viewing it as a special form of such construction. On the basis of this synthesis three issues with relevance for environmental economics are discussed. First, the role of institutional factors in the process of preference formation is emphasized. Next, the role of institutions for the choice of desired states of the environment is analyzed. Finally, the effect of various policy instruments to motivate people to produce these states is discussed. It is concluded that the core policy issue is to determine which institutional frameworks are most reasonable to apply to which kind of problem. Issues, which from the perspective of neoclassical economics are pure technical, become serious value questions if understood from an institutional perspective. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper contains results of contingent valuation (CV) and positional analysis (PA) surveys of Tatras National Park in Slovakia that were carried out in the summer 2007 on a sample of 627 respondents. Willingness to pay based on an open-ended CV survey was used to determine the recreational value of the park. The application of the PA concerning the choice of the most preferred scenario of future development showed that residents want changes focusing on tourism and creation of more job opportunities in the ecological economy. The implementation of the results into the regional planning and decision-making process was proposed through the internalization of externalities into taxes, a comparison with the current economic and social development plan, and the institutionalization of the "TANAP fund" financed by visitors' entrance fees, whose main function will be the conservation of the national park. a This paper contains results of contingent valuation (CV) and positional analysis (PA) surveys of Tatras National Park in Slovakia that were carried out in the summer 2007 on a sample of 627 respondents. Willingness to pay based on an open-ended CV survey was used to determine the recreational value of the park. The application of the PA concerning the choice of the most preferred scenario of future development showed that residents want changes focusing on tourism and creation of more job opportunities in the ecological economy. The implementation of the results into the regional planning and decision-making process was proposed through the internalization of externalities into taxes, a comparison with the current economic and social development plan, and the institutionalization of the "TANAP fund" financed by visitors' entrance fees, whose main function will be the conservation of the national park. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A nutrient emission modelling system, called STONE, has been developed for the Netherlands. The approach of STONE and its use in evaluating environmental policies in the Netherlands are discussed. This specific approach is then compared with that of other nutrient emission modelling systems. Emphasis is put on both the scientific–technical aspects and on the applications in quantifying environmental effects of policy interventions at different scales. Results from STONE show, for example, the areas in the Netherlands where maximally acceptable nitrate concentrations in groundwater may be exceeded in the future, the effectiveness of implemented or intended policy measures on nutrient emissions, and the advantage of its mechanistic, spatially distributed approach. Such a detailed modelling approach is shown to be required to take into account the strong and complex interacting effects of, e.g. nutrient supply, groundwater level and management on nutrient emissions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

When Finland joined the EU in 1995, agri-environmental policy changed significantly, in terms of both content and style. As a result of the policy process, substantial changes took place in institutional structures and in policy instruments. The most remarkable change, however, was that co-operation between environmental and agricultural administration began. This co-operation has become ever more important, especially regarding future challenges of implementing the EU Water Framework Directive. This paper examines the development of Finnish agri-environmental policy in the Advocacy Coalition Framework by concentrating on three separate, but interconnected, policy formation processes, namely the Finnish Agri-Environmental Programme, the Nitrates Directive and the recent Water Framework Directive. By concentrating on these policy processes it was possible to analyse the evolution of the policy subsystem over time, to examine the changes in policy belief systems, then to analyse the elements that either enable or prohibit co-operation and finally to assess the role of policy learning in the process. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During 34 years, David Pearce made major contribution to OECD work on environmental economic issues, with a particular focus on cost–benefit analysis, economic instruments, biodiversity and distributive issues. This article provides a brief review of David Pearce’s contributions. This work was particularly useful in enhancing the political economy of environmental policy which is at the core of OECD work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of environment-orientated innovation depends crucially on (a) incentives internal to a potential user company of environment-orientated technology and (b) on external stimuli. The decision to innovate, it is frequently claimed, depends mostly on external stimuli in the form of market information or legal requirements. Due to this recognition, two different external incentives co-exist, i.e. market-orientated and policy-orientated incentives. This contribution focuses mainly on policy-orientated stimuli, acknowledging market-specific and internal factors, however, if connected directly to policies. The emphasis in this paper is on policy signals and their perception, with the aim of providing assistance in policy design, taking into account the policy-specific structures of stimuli. The policy-orientated stimuli discussed for environment-orientated innovation have their origins in two separate policy fields—environmental policy and technology policy. Both policy fields follow different strategies in promoting innovation. In principle both are sending out signals but in different forms to various receivers and at different stages of a particular innovation project. In this contribution these signals and their effects are analysed. A distinction between first mover-orientated and diffusion-orientated signals and their effectiveness is made. Two principal receivers of such signals exist: technology users and technology providers. The question is which kind of policy stimulus exerts the major influence on which receiver? Another central question is, who receives the signal first? The main thesis is that different types of signals are needed to provide a stimulus for different receivers. Policy signals hence need to be tailor-made to achieve innovation strategies that are carried out by pioneers. Finally the paper presents different types of innovation relay systems within which the signals are transmitted and lead to specific actions within an innovation project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the past two decades Congress has enacted numerous pieces of legislation for the prevention of environmentally-provoked disease and for reducing ecological risk. The transmutation of these policies into action has been plagued by problems of delay, interagency disagreement, and inadequate resources. As the executive and legislative branches of the federal government try within the next four years to settle and move beyond a number of large environmental health and ecological issues, they must be constantly alerted to the limitations inherent in the implementation phase of the policy process, and not raise public expectations beyond what is realistically achievable in terms of policy impact (i.e. changes in the environment that are associated with measures of government activities). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The environmental policy of the European Community is nested within a broader institution devoted predominantly to market integration. It also co-exists with the domestic environmental policies of the member states. This institutional arrangement has important consequences for environmental governance in the present Union. Not only does the wide scope for domestic environmental action generate different logics of harmonization for the regulation of products and processes, it also creates an institutional preference for European product standards because this type of regulation allows a trade-off between environmental and single market concerns. This effect is demonstrated by the development of the originally purely environmentally motivated and process-related directive on packaging and packaging waste adopted in 1994. During its preparation, this legislative project was supplemented with a strong product-related component that made a trade-off between policies possible and facilitated majority support in the Council. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses upon the problem of policy co-ordination and employs an account of co-ordination between technical systems developed by Fritz W. Scharpf (Scharpf 1994) as the framework within which to explore multi-level environmental policy-making between the European Union (EU) and the countries of Central Europe (CE). Current EU-CE environmental policy co-ordination is characterized as relying upon techniques of technical unification (or 'one-way harmonization') and processes of hierarchical imposition (reflected in 'asymmetrical policy relations'). The article concludes by reviewing the potential advantages of 'policy interface' techniques and 'negotiation-based' co-ordination processes within the EU-CE environmental policy relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews the contemporary debate and the now long standing role of CBA in UK and European environmental policy appraisal (EPA) and looks forward to possible future applications. The position taken is that despite its limitations CBA still has an important part to play in EPA. However, with the increasingly ‘contested’ nature of environmental and related public policies and outcomes, its role will become less prescriptive and its findings more constrained by social justice and ethical imperatives. Future CBA is more likely to continue to flourish as a component in a wider policy analysis and decision support system. Whatever decision support system is eventually adopted, its value will be judged on how well it aids real policymakers operating iteratively in the non-linear real world political economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines how far the EU has succeeded in encouraging the content, structure and style of national environmental policies to converge. Using fresh empirical evidence collected from 10 national environmental policies, it presents a very mixed pattern of change, with some elements of national policy converging more rapidly (and through different causal pathways) than others. These findings are viewed through the lens of popular theories of structural convergence, integration and Europeanization respectively, to reach a fuller understanding of the pathways and outcomes of change in an enlarging EU. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comparative policy analysis increasingly faces the challenge of incorporating external forces on national policy developments into its analytical framework. Scholars of international relations have recognized that the behaviour of states – in terms of policy outputs – converges even in the absence of binding international agreements. These two branches of research can be bridged by the concept of policy diffusion. Diffusion analysis asks for those conditions that favour or hinder the spread of policy innovations within the international system. However, the scientific community struggles with different meanings and notions of the term policy diffusion. Thus, the aim of this paper is to offer a general conceptual framework for the study of diffusion processes within the international system. Understanding the process of policy diffusion requires an analysis of the complex interplay between transnational and international forces, national factors and the characteristics of policy innovations. By providing a conceptual framework this paper hopes not only to contribute to the theoretical debate but also to give guidance for empirical research. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and other conventional valuation methods of non-market goods often prove to be unsuitable for the evaluation of the benefits of agro-environmental policy. Therefore, a new method is introduced, according to which a group of experts jointly evaluates the strengths, weaknesses and finally monetary benefit of agro-environmental programmes. While the methodology combines expert surveys, group discussions and CVM, its theoretical background is merit good theory. Compared to CVM, the most important practical difference in its outcome is the greater openness of the results. As an example, the Expert Valuation Method is applied to two groups of agro-environmental policy measures in Switzerland. Suggestions for more efficient levels of reimbursements are made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous governments have adopted innovative policy instruments to deal with important environmental policy challenges and negotiated instruments offer the potential to improve performance beyond what regulation alone can accomplish. Dutch covenants, which represent negotiated agreements with sectors of industry as targets of behavioral change, provide useful evidence of the determinants of success. For improving environmental performance, certain features of the policy setting explain much of the variance in ambitions and outcomes: attitudes of decision makers in the affected businesses, attention to cost minimization, and possibly the degree of ambition built into the agreement. Modeling to explain the extent of ambition and compliance offer further insights. While some Dutch lessons may be restricted to more corporatist policy settings, others may help improve the effectiveness of negotiated agreements in many national settings. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The execution of successful social-ecological research and the formulation of effective environmental policies crucially depend on a deep knowledge of the temporal complexity of the interactions between social and biophysical systems. To promote a keener awareness of the relevance of time, cycles, and tempos, this study assembles examples drawn from a range of disciplines to delineate the ways temporality enters into human behavior, resource management, and the conduct of social-ecological research. Anthropological and historical studies document the culturally embedded temporal subjectivities that shape the way humans exploit or conserve natural resources. Analyses of environmental policy show how temporal considerations enter into intervention strategies via such concepts as discount rates, property rights and the precautionary principle. The centrality of temporal assumptions is further evidenced by the time-dependent foundations of disciplinary specializations. The likelihood of temporal mismatches between the specializations that participate in interdisciplinary research and between the scientific findings and environmental policy can be mitigated by giving attention to temporal grain, temporal fallacy and temporal extent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper integrates environmental policy instruments with the theory of equilibrium unemployment. We investigate the question of whether a low equilibrium rate of unemployment and a high quality of the environment are complementary policy goals or must be traded off. It turns out that an interval exists for a tax on emissions where the two goals are indeed complementary. The tax stimulates the emergence of an abatement sector which provides pollution control and vacancies for the job seekers. For constrained efficiency, the policy maker operates five instruments to internalize the environmental and the search externalities. A tax on emissions, employment subsidies and recruiting allowances for the polluting industries are sufficient to implement the first-best. The optimal emission tax is an increasing function of the workers’ bargaining strength. For labor markets where workers have a strong bargaining position, the optimal pollution tax may easily exceed the Pigouvian tax. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper describes a promising new evaluation approach, called a "value integration survey," that uses the objectives and tradeoffs expressed by participants to value environmental policy options. This constructive technique, which builds on the interactive elicitation process of decision analysts, assists stakeholders in clarifying their values and in agreeing on a policy alternative. The paper compares this multiattribute valuation method to contingent valuation surveys, describes the sequence of respondents' tasks, and presents results from a case study comparison of contingent valuation and value-integration survey methods in the context of valuing options for fire control in Oregon's oldgrowth forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cities increasingly face the necessity to choose among possible policy measures to counter urban heat and then to justify them. The contingent valuation method (CVM) is a frequently applied approach to estimate the monetary value of environmental policy measures. The authors scrutinized the appropriateness of the CVM to estimate the value of trees and drinking fountains as measures against urban heat in Vienna, Austria. First, to elicit meaningful per-unit estimates, the respondents’ willingness to pay depending on the scenario’s number of units was tested. It was found that the number of trees does not influence the average willingness to pay. Second, in the case of many possible policy measures, negative valuations are possible. The authors estimated a negative mean willingness to pay for fountains when allowing for negative values. These two findings render the CVM results questionable for policy recommendations. The authors believe that these limitations are typical of the CVM and refer to alternative methods to monetarily value measures against urban heat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some form of stated preference method is essential for comprehensive evaluation of environmental policy options. The two most important stated preference methods are contingent valuation (CV) and choice modelling. I identify and discuss the major challenges facing CV and choice modelling researchers. Choice modelling applications to environmental valuation are comparatively recent, so the emphasis in this paper is on the more extensive body of CV research. The development of CV has been characterised by a (generally) constructive debate both within the economics profession, and between economists, philosophers, psychologists and other social scientists. As a result, much has been learnt about the nature of non-market economic values and how they might be measured. Important issues are the extent to which existing stated preference methods accurately represent individuals' values, and provide valid and reliable measures of changes in economic welfare. I review each of these issues in the light of recent theoretical and empirical work, identify the major outstanding problems, and indicate areas where progress is being made. I argue that the problems are solvable, and that eventually a theoretically sound and empirically effective method will be developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Different economic valuation methodologies can be used to value the non-market benefits of an agri-environmental scheme. In particular, the non-market value can be examined by assessing the public's willingness to pay for the policy outputs as a whole or by modelling the preferences of society for the component attributes of the rural landscape that result from the implementation of the policy. In this article we examine whether the welfare values estimated for an agri-environmental policy are significantly different between an holistic valuation methodology (using contingent valuation) and an attribute-based valuation methodology (choice experiment). It is argued that the valuation methodology chosen should be based on whether or not the overall objective is the valuation of the agri-environment policy package in its entirety or the valuation of each of the policy's distinct environmental outputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The Fourth Dutch Environmental Policy Plan, released in 2001, was explicitly focused on long term system innovations to solve the very tenacious problems of climate change and global biodiversity [VROM (Environmental Department). Where there’s a will there’s a world, 4th National Environmental Policy Plan for the Netherlands 2001 [summary in English]]. This plan ushered in a new environmental policy. Five years later, in 2006, the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP) brought out the first analysis of the progress of these system innovation processes, showing that although new initiatives had been taken, long term policy was not yet a leading element. MNP has developed a new evaluation method for this analysis, which is not based on monitoring results of environmental quality or emission reduction, but on societal activities concerning perception of the problems, vision, R&D, experiments in practice and the analysis of driving forces behind new investments. Still, a policy evaluation is difficult without clear policy goals. System innovation is a goal-seeking process, and not only in terms of greenhouse gas emissions or levels of biodiversity in the long term. Since there are many technological and/or institutional possibilities established beforehand, choices are not clear. Neither is it wise to make a choice too soon. This is why an important element of the method is the focus on system options as potential goals. The evaluation method is explained and illustrated with system options related to mobility. Examples are fuel cells and hydrogen produced with Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) in northern Africa, energy transport included. Another system option is based on CSP, as well as on the direct use of electricity in plug-in hybrid cars. A third system option is based on liquid biofuels. Although far from giving a complete picture, these options provide good indications of transition processes in practice for developing alternatives for fossil motor fuels. Here the main on-going activities for these system options are described and the role of Dutch policy in the goal-seeking process is analyzed. Potential environmental effects of these system options have been calculated as a part of a broader sustainability assessment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We consider an economy comprising two production sectors. A manufactured goods sector emits environmental pollutants during production. The other sector is an agricultural goods sector producing with constant returns to scale. It is used as numeraire. In our model, moreover, it is possible for the firms in the manufactured goods sector to select the production technology of intermediate goods out of two technologies: a “classical technology” with constant returns to scale or “modern technology” with increasing returns to scale. We explain the environmental Kuznets curve, which is described in many empirical studies of environmental economics, by using our theoretical model and show some relations between the technological conversion and the generating factor of the environmental Kuznets curve. Moreover, we consider a case in which a population can move freely between regions and in which this technological conversion affects the population distribution in the long run. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper examines the implications of an environmental policy for growth performances. We develop a model where growth is driven by human capital accumulation. Firms invest in research to develop new technologies to reduce their pollution emissions and education is treated as product which not only enhances the productivity of individuals but also enters in their preferences. We find that a tighter environmental policy can promote growth. The reason is that a higher tax on pollution drives the prices of goods whose production is polluting up. This, in turn, enhances the willingness of individuals to acquire education. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Protecting ourselves cost-effectively from such global environmental threats as climate change requires a good understanding of the behavioral underpinnings that drive choice under risk and uncertainty, lead to the design of efficient and effective protocols for cooperative action across nations, and create incentives for different control strategies within nations. Researchers can use experimental economic methods to gain insight into these micromotives of climate policy by testing the robustness of theoretical predictions, and by recognizing new patterns of choice. Experiments can be used to sharpen the best guesses guiding policy by identifying how decision makers can try to get more environmental progress at less cost by accounting for the relevant determinants of behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]