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Successful icing/de-icing simulations for rotorcraft require a good prediction of the convective heat transfer on the blade’s surface. Rotorcraft icing is an unwanted phenomenon that is known to cause flight cancelations, loss of rotor performance and severe vibrations that may have disastrous and deadly consequences. Following a series of experiments carried out at the Anti-icing Materials International Laboratory (AMIL), this paper provides heat transfer measurements on heated rotor blades, under both the anti-icing and de-icing modes in terms of the Nusselt Number (Nu). The objective is to develop correlations for the Nu in the presence of (1) an ice layer on the blades (NuIce) and (2) liquid water content (LWC) in the freestream with no ice (NuWet). For the sake of comparison, the NuWet and the NuIce are compared to heat transfer values in dry runs (NuDry). Measurements are reported on the nose of the blade-leading edge, for three rotor speeds (Ω) = 500, 900 and 1000 RPM; a pitch angle (θ) = 6°; and three different radial positions (r/R), r/R = 0.6, 0.75 and 0.95. The de-icing tests are performed twice, once for a glaze ice accretion and another time for rime ice. Results indicate that the NuDry and the NuWet directly increased with V∝, r/R or Ω, mainly due to an increase in the Reynolds number (Re). Measurements indicate that the NuWet to NuDry ratio was always larger than 1 as a direct result of the water spray addition. NuIce behavior was different and was largely affected by the ice thickness (tice) on the blade. However, the ice acted as insulation on the blade surface and the NuIce to NuDry ratio was always less than 1, thus minimizing the effect of convection. Four correlations are then proposed for the NuDry, the NuWet and the NuIce, with an average error between 3.61% and 12.41%. The NuDry correlation satisfies what is expected from heat transfer near the leading edge of an airfoil, where the NuDry correlates well with Re0.52.

In-flight icing affects helicopter performance, limits its operations, and reduces safety. The convective heat transfer is an important parameter in numerical icing simulations and state-of-the-art icing/de-icing codes utilize important computing resources when calculating it. The BEMT–RHT and UVLM–RHT offer low- and medium-fidelity approaches to estimate the rotor heat transfer (RHT). They are based on a coupling between Blade element momentum theory (BEMT) or unsteady vortex lattice method (UVLM), and a CFD-determined heat transfer correlation. The latter relates the Frossling number (Fr) to the Reynolds number (Re) and effective angle of attack (αEff). In a series of experiments carried out at the Anti-icing Materials International Laboratory (AMIL), this paper serves as a proof of concept of the proposed correlations. The objective is to propose correlations for the experimentally measured rotor heat transfer data. Specifically, the Frx is correlated with the Re and αEff in a similar form as the proposed CFD-based correlations. A fixed-wing setup is first used as a preliminary step to verify the heat transfer measurements of the icing wind tunnel (IWT). Tests are conducted at α = 0°, for a range of 4.76 × 105 ≤ Re ≤ 1.36 × 106 and at 10 non-dimensional surface wrap locations − 0.62 ≤ (S/c) ≤ + 0.87. Later, a rotor setup is used to build the novel heat transfer correlation, tests are conducted at two pitch angles ((θ) = 0° and 6°) for a range of rotor speeds (500 RPM ≤ (Ω) ≤ 1500 RPM), three different radial positions ((r/R) = 0.6, 0.75 and 0.95), and 0 ≤ S/c ≤ + 0.58. Results indicate that the fixed-wing Frx at the stagnation point was in the range of literature experimental data, and within 8% of fully turbulent CFD simulations. The FrAvg also agrees with CFD predictions, with an average discrepancy of 1.4%. For the rotor, the Ω caused a similar increase of Frx for the tests at θ = 0° and those at θ = 6°. Moreover, the Frx behavior changed significantly with r/R, suggesting the αEff had a significant effect on the Frx. Finally, the rotor data are first correlated with Rem (at each S/c) for θ = 0° to establish the correlation parameters, and a term for the αEff is then added to also account for the tests at θ = 6°. The correlations fit the data with an error between 2.1% and 14%, thus justifying the use of a coupled approach for the BEMT–RHT and UVLM–RHT.

Calculating the unsteady convective heat transfer on helicopter blades is the first step in the prediction of ice accretion and the design of ice-protection systems. Simulations using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) successfully model the complex aerodynamics of rotors as well as the heat transfer on blade surfaces, but for a conceptual design, faster calculation methods may be favorable. In the recent literature, classical methods such as the blade element momentum theory (BEMT) and the unsteady vortex lattice method (UVLM) were used to produce higher fidelity aerodynamic results by coupling them to viscous CFD databases. The novelty of this research originates from the introduction of an added layer of the coupling technique to predict rotor blade heat transfer using the BEMT and UVLM. The new approach implements the viscous coupling of the two methods from one hand and introduces a link to a new airfoil CFD-determined heat transfer correlation. This way, the convective heat transfer on ice-clean rotor blades is estimated while benefiting from the viscous extension of the BEMT and UVLM. The CFD heat transfer prediction is verified using existing correlations for a flat plate test case. Thrust predictions by the implemented UVLM and BEMT agree within 2% and 80% compared to experimental data. Tip vortex locations by the UVLM are predicted within 90% but fail in extreme ground effect. The end results present as an estimate of the heat transfer for a typical lightweight helicopter tail rotor for four test cases in hover, ground effect, axial, and forward flight.