Search

The prehydrolysate from dilute acid pretreatment of lignocellulosic feedstocks often contains inhibitory compounds that can seriously inhibit the subsequent enzymatic and fermentation processes. Acetic acid is one of the most representative toxic compounds. In this research, alkaline deacetylation of corn stover was carried out using sodium carbonate under mild conditions to selectively remove the acetyl groups of the biomass and reduce the toxicity of the prehydrolysate. The deacetylation process was optimized by adjusting factors such as temperature, treatment time, and sodium carbonate concentration. Sodium carbonate solutions (2~6 wt%) at 30~50 °C were used for the deacetylation step, followed by dilute acid pretreatment with 1.5% H2SO4 at 121 °C. Results showed that the acetyl content of the treated corn stover could be reduced up to 87%, while the hemicellulose loss remained low. The optimal deacetylation condition was found to be 40 °C, 6 h, and 4 wt% Na2CO3, resulting in a removal of 80.55% of the acetyl group in corn stover and a hemicellulose loss of 4.09%. The acetic acid concentration in the acid prehydrolysate decreased from 1.38 to 0.34 g/L. The enzymatic hydrolysis of solid corn stover and the whole slurry after pretreatment increased by 17% and 16%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) production by Paraburkholderia sacchari was investigated using glucose-xylose mixtures as simulated corn stover hydrolysates to optimize the culture media. Box-Behnken Design (BBD) was selected to comprehensively understand the effects of four variables including sugar concentration, molar C/N ratio, phosphorus concentration, and sugar ratio on P(3HB) production. The optimized parameters were identified as initial sugar concentration (23 g/L), molar C/N ratio (44), phosphorus concentration (8.7 g/L), and sugar ratio (1.9∶1). Under the optimal conditions, P. sacchari achieved the maximum P(3HB) accumulation of 55.8 % with a P(3HB) titer of 5.16 g/L (0.23 g/g Sugar). The extracted polymer was confirmed as P(3HB) and exhibited enhanced thermostability. Furthermore, P(3HB) was successfully synthesized from ball-milled corn stover hydrolysate under optimized conditions with the P(3HB) titer reached 7.66 g/L (0.33 g/g Sugar), which was higher than the pure mixed sugar system and other reports on lignocellulose hydrolysates with batch fermentation (<5 g/L). Therefore, P. sacchari exhibits the potential for P(3HB) production using corn stover hydrolysates as an inexpensive substrate. [Display omitted] • The bacterial growth increased by 30% and P(3HB) production by 66% after optimization. • Molar C/N ratio is most significant for maximizing P(3HB) accumulation. • The higher P(3HB) production (7.6 g/L) was obtained in corn stover hydrolysates. • Corn stover hydrolysates can be exploited as a potential carbon source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cellulose triacetate (CTA) was successfully synthesized from corn stover cellulose (CSC) in the presence of [PyPS]3PW12O40 (IL-POM). The effects of IL-POM contents, reaction temperature, and reaction time on the yield and degree of substitution of CTA were investigated. The synthesized CTA was characterized by SEM, FTIR, and TGA, and the degree of polymerization and solubility in various organic solvents were evaluated. Results showed that the optimum reaction conditions were as follows: 0.04 g of IL-POM, reaction temperature of 140 °C, and reaction time of 45 min, for 0.4 g of CSC and 9 mL of glacial acetic acid. The yield of CTA under optimum reaction conditions was as high as 79.27%, and the degree of substitution was 2.95. SEM and FTIR results showed that the cellulose acetylation occurred, and CTA was synthesized. The TGA results revealed that the decomposition temperature of CTA increased by about 30 °C when compared with that of CSC. A simple, environment-friendly, and efficient process for the preparation of CTA from CSC was constructed, which provides a new pathway for the high-value utilization of corn stover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Valorization of lignocellulosic biomass to obtain clean fuels and high-value chemicals is attractive and essential for sustainable energy and chemical production, but the complex structure of biomass is recalcitrant to catalytic processing. This recalcitrance can be overcome by pretreating biomass into deconstructable components, which involves altering the structural complexities and physicochemical properties. However, the impact of these alterations on biomass deconstruction varies considerably, depending on the pretreatment and subsequent conversion type. Here, we systematically describe the changes in structure and properties of corn stover after ball milling as well as their influence on the following enzymatic saccharification and acid-catalyzed alcoholysis, with the aim of elucidating the relationships between structures, properties and deconstructable potential of lignocellulosic biomass. Results: Ball milling causes dramatic structural changes, since the resistant plant cell walls are destroyed with size reduction to a cellular scale, leading to the increase in surface area and reducing ends, and decrease in crystallinity and thermal stability. As a result, ball-milled corn stover is more susceptible to enzymatic saccharification to fermentable sugars and provides more industrially viable processing approaches, as it is effective at high solids loading and minor enzyme loading, without any other pretreatment. Acid-catalyzed alcoholysis of corn stover to biofuels, on the other hand, is also enhanced by ball milling, but additional processing parameters should be tailored to the needs of efficient conversion. Further, a detailed examination of process variables coupled with a kinetic study indicates that acid-catalyzed alcoholysis is limited by the process variables rather than by the substrate parameters, whereas ball milling facilitates this reaction to some extent, especially under mild conditions, by lowering the activation energy of corn stover decomposition. Conclusions: The efficient catalytic conversion of biomass is closely related to its structure and properties, an understanding of which offers prospects for the rational improvement of methods aimed at more economic commercial biorefineries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an efficient lignocellulose fractionation process, peracetic acid and maleic acid (PAM) pretreatment is integrated into a multi-product platform for the simultaneous manufacture of cellulose, lignin, and xylose. Employing such strategy, 100 g corn stover (dry basis) yielded 39.63 g cellulose-rich solids along with 11.88 g xylose and 12.00 g lignin recovered from the pretreatment liquor. The recovery of xylose and lignin was assessed with various organic solvents, of which 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (2-MeTHF) showed superior performance, giving high lignin yield (75.23%) and xylose yield (67.32%). The recovered lignin (2-MeTHF-L) was characterized by high purity, relatively low molecular weight, and large numbers of carboxyl group. Besides, 2D-HSQC NMR analysis revealed that the 2-MeTHF-L was esterified with maleic acid during PAM pretreatment, partly responsible for its enhanced antioxidant ability. This strategy maximizes feedstock utilization and improves the processability in downstream valorization, offering a prospect for sustainable and efficient biorefineries. [Display omitted] • A multi-product strategy was evaluated for the fractionation of corn stover. • High lignin yield (75.23%) and xylose yield (67.32%) were attained with 2-MeTHF. • Recovered lignin possessed desirable properties such as low molecular weight. • Esterification of recovered lignin partly enhanced the antioxidant activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A comparative study on conventional and microwave-assisted liquefaction of corn stover has been carried out using ethylene glycol (EG) as liquefacient and sulfuric acid as catalyst. Microwave dramatically increased the liquefaction extent and rate compared to conventional heating. The liquefied products and residues in both methods have been investigated using gel permeation chromatography (GPC), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The GPC results show that the molecular weight of liquefied products with conventional heating is significantly greater than those of microwave-assisted liquefaction. The FTIR spectra indicate that there are significant differences in the hydroxyl and carbonyl group contents in the liquefied products with the two methods. The residue from microwave-assisted liquefaction mainly consisted of mineral matter. Many granules appeared on the surface of microwave liquefied residue according to SEM observation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights • Pretreatment of corn stover lignocellulose facilitated later cellulase hydrolysis. • Pulverization followed by phosphoric acid treatment was optimal pretreatment. • Pretreatment affected lignocellulose particle size, crystallinity and structure. • Light aided sugar release during cellulase hydrolysis of pretreated lignocellulose. Abstract Lignocellulosic biomass from corn stover holds promise as a raw material for the production of alternative energy to replace fossil fuels. In this study, structural properties of corn stover after pretreatment using mechanical pulverization with or without subsequent phosphoric acid treatment were investigated. The results showed that a pulverization step loosened the compact structure of corn stover lignocellulose and effectively reduced particle size, while both pulverization and phosphoric acid pretreatment steps altered the crystallinity index. During pretreatment, hemicellulose content was reduced and accessibility of β-1,4 glycosidic bonds to hydrolysis by cellulase increased, while almost all lignin was retained. The results showed that the combined two-step pretreatment method improved sugar yield from lignocellulose during subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis from 20.01 mg/g to 41.41 mg/g in glucose yield. These results should guide the development of methods for improved lignocellulose conversion to sugars for enhanced bioethanol production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-solids saccharification and fermentation is central to the cost-competitive production of cellulosic ethanol, but it often comes with unsatisfactory conversion efficiency because of mixing and heat/mass transfer limitations. The use of ball milling can considerably enhance enzymatic hydrolysis with desirable rheological properties at high solids, and we obtained a high sugar concentration of 162 g/L with a glucose yield of 74% after enzymatic hydrolysis. However, little is known about the impact of ball milling on subsequent fermentation of sugars to ethanol as well as the feasibility of producing high titer bioethanol from ball-milled materials at high solids loading. Here, we systematically evaluated various fermentation strategies to maximize the efficiency and economic benefits of bioethanol production using ball-milled corn stover at high solids loading. A high ethanol titer and productivity can be achieved up to 71.8 g/L and 2 g/L/h, respectively, with an ethanol yield of 58.8%. These results suggest the tremendous potential of ball milling for bioethanol production. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

On-line analysis of proximates (moisture, ash, volatile matter, and fixed carbon) and lignocellulose components (cellulose, semi-cellulose, and lignin) of coarse-crushed corn stover was investigated using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Compared with traditional technique, on-line measurement is complex and challenging but provides real-time analysis. The spectrometer operated over a conveyor belt that moved at 20 cm/s, and the distance between the spectrometer scanning window and the surface of the sample was 100 mm. Corn stover samples ( n = 217) were collected from three provinces in China and used to develop the models. Samples were crushed to <50 mm before analysis. After optimized pretreatment, all the NIRS models were developed using partial least squares (PLS) method. The relative standard deviations (RSD) of the models for moisture, ash, volatile matter, fixed carbon, cellulose, semi-cellulose, and lignin were 9.04%, 9.99%, 1.31%, 6.00%, 3.87%, 6.80%, and 5.06%, respectively. On-line analysis of proximates and lignocellulose components of corn stover was possible using this NIRS system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study developed a dual-stage pyrolysis-catalysis pathway to valorize disposal syringe waste into liquid hydrocarbons and H 2 -rich fuel gas. Two typical biomass sources (corn stover and cotton stalk) were used to synthesize metal-doping porous biochar catalysts through in situ carbothermal reduction treatment. For corn stover-derived biochar catalysts, Fe/C1 (Fe-doping corn stover biochar catalyst) presented a high yield (61.06 wt%) of liquid hydrocarbons with over 78% of jet fuel range (C 8 – C 16) hydrocarbons, and the 2,4-dimethyl-1-heptene (C 9 H 18) yield reached 101.6 mg/g syringe. Bimetallic Zn-Fe/C1 (Zn-Fe co-doped corn stover biochar catalyst) was in favor of H 2 production, with a proportion of over 37 vol%. Among the cotton stalk-derived biochar catalysts, bimetallic Zn-Fe/C2 (Zn-Fe co-doped cotton stalk biochar catalyst) achieved a highest yield (62.76 wt%) of liquid hydrocarbons, indicating a positive synergistic effect of bimetallic Zn-Fe composite on liquid hydrocarbons production. However, Fe/C2 (Fe-doping cotton stalk biochar catalyst) was responsible for a high yield (over 93 mg/g syringe) of 2,4-dimethyl-1-heptene and a high selectivity (over 76%) of jet fuel range hydrocarbons. Additionally, a logical reaction mechanism was provided for dual-stage pyrolysis-catalysis of syringe waste over metal-doping porous biochar catalysts. Briefly, this work provides a green route by using metal-doping biochar for valorization of medical wastes into liquid hydrocarbons and H 2 -rich fuel gas. [Display omitted] • Disposal syringe waste was first treated by a dual-stage pyrolysis-catalysis route. • Coupling harvests of jet fuel range hydrocarbons and H 2 -rich fuel gas was achieved. • Fe/C1 obtained 61.06 wt% of liquid yield and 78% of jet fuel range hydrocarbons. • Zn-Fe/C1 was favorable for H 2 formation, with a proportion of over 37 vol%. • Zn-Fe/C2 showed a positive synergistic effect on liquid production (62.76 wt%). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The enzyme adsorption and hydrolytic performance of UGCS is better than SGCS. • The adsorption quantity depend on the total enzyme loading. • Glucose yield of one-step and two-step kinetics are similar at same enzyme loading. • The first hydrolysis step contribute more to the total glucose yield. Abstract To investigate the effect of two-step kinetics on enzyme adsorption and hydrolytic properties of different structural substrates at low enzyme doses. The two-step kinetic experiments of ultrafine grinding (UGCS) and sieve-based grinding corn stover (SGCS) were performed respectively with enzyme loading of 2.5 + 2.5 FPU/g and 5 + 5 FPU/g. The different performance of these two samples were illustrated by characterizing the particle size distribution, SEM and XPS. The results showed that ultrafine grinding can promote the structural properties which is beneficial to adsorption and hydrolysis. The main factors influencing adsorption kinetics are enzyme concentration and the surface cellulose amount. Pre-adsorbed enzyme has no effects on the subsequent enzyme adsorption quantity but produces some small competitive and impeditive effects. The hydrolysis kinetics mainly depend on the structure of the substrate and its complexity of hydrolysis. The two-step hydrolysis didn't promote the total sugar yield under the same enzyme concentration, but the first step contributed more to the total sugar yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Corn stover is a valuable feedstock for non-grain sugar production. Each anatomical part has different composition and structural propertied. In this study, corn stover was divided into four parts (stem, leaf, husk, and ear). Their response to ball milling pretreatment and potential for sugar production by enzymatic hydrolysis were studied. Among four parts, the husk obtained the highest monosaccharide concentration due to its lower crystallinity and more suitable chemical composition. Ball milling pretreatment can enhance their structural properties significantly and increase sugar yield. At 20% solid loadings, the monosaccharides concentration in all parts exceeded 80 g·L−1. However, due to the larger particle size, the husk had a poor response to ball milling pretreatment. In contrast, the best response was observed in stem due to the least particle size and lots of cavity structure. Therefore, the enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency of ball milled stem was the highest. Furthermore, the lignin content among various parts before ball milling was the critical factor for the difference in enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency, so as the ash content of the leaves, the crystallinity and water retention value of the stem. After ball milling, higher crystallinity, xylan content, D(10) and water retention value were the key factors leading to low enzymatic hydrolysis conversion of husk. This study provided a guidance for the better corn stover sugar production. [Display omitted] • Husk has the best sugar production potential before ball milling. • Stem obtains the best ball milling effect. • The high solids effect of ball milled husk is more severe than that stem. • The properties of leaf and ear are similar. • The key factors affecting enzymatic hydrolysis vary with sample and pretreatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, ball milling was applied as a pretreatment to promote the production of ethyl levulinate (EL) from corn stover under microwave irradiation. The experiments showed mechanical grinding significantly increased the EL yields by 31.23 and 23.31% at 160 and 170 °C, respectively. To further understand the influence of ultrafine grinding on alcoholysis process, we have presented a series of physicochemical and morphological analysis for the ball milled corn stover. The characterization indicated that ball milling sharply reduced the particle size to cellular scale and the intact, smooth surface changed to an open, porous structure during ball milling. It also resulted in the disruption of crystalline cellulose to amorphous state and the depolymerization of polysaccharides with an increase in reducing-ends. In general, mechanical processing approach could efficiently modify the corn stover and facilitate the EL production in the following three ways: firstly, the reduction in particle size with increased surface increased the reaction accessibility of cellulose; secondly, the destruction of compact cellulose crystal structure conduced to the reduction of alcoholysis energy barrier; moreover, the depolymerized polysaccharides resulted in the increase of the reaction sites, which further improved the reaction activity and promote EL conversion. The mechanical processing approach could well hold the key to a better use of the mechanical forces in the alcohol reaction system, providing an environment-friendly method into lignocellulosic biorefinery schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Corn stover was pretreated with acid under moderate conditions (1.5%, w/w, 121 °C, 60 min), and kinetic enzymolysis experiments were performed on the pretreated substrate using a mixture of Celluclast 1.5 L (20 FPU/g dry substrate) and Novozyme 188 (40 CBU/g dry substrate). Integrated chemical and multi-scale structural methods were then used to characterize both processes. Chemical analysis showed that acid pretreatment removed considerable hemicellulose (from 19.7% in native substrate to 9.28% in acid-pretreated substrate) and achieved a reasonably high conversion efficiency (58.63% of glucose yield) in the subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis. Multi-scale structural analysis indicated that acid pretreatment caused structural changes via cleaving acetyl linkages, solubilizing hemicellulose, relocating cell wall surfaces and enlarging substrate porosity (pore volume increased from 0.0067 cm 3 /g in native substrate to 0.019 cm 3 /g in acid-pretreated substrate), thereby improving the polysaccharide digestibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kinetic experiments on the dilute sulfuric acid pretreatment of corn stover were performed. A high xylan removal and a low inhibitor concentration were achieved by acid pretreatment. A novel diffusion–hydrolysis coupled kinetic model was proposed. The contribution to the xylose yield was analyzed by the kinetic model. Compared with the inhibitor furfural negatively affecting xylose yield, the fast and slow-hydrolyzing xylan significantly contributed to the xylose yield, however, their dominant roles were dependent on reaction temperature and time. The impact of particle size and acid concentration on the xylose yield were also investigated. The diffusion process may significantly influence the hydrolysis of large particles. Increasing the acid concentration from 0.15 M to 0.30 M significantly improved the xylose yield, whereas the extent of improvement decreased to near-quantitative when further increasing acid loading. These findings shed some light on the mechanism for dilute sulfuric acid hydrolysis of corn stover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Fast co-HTL of corn stover and cow manure was conducted for biocrude production. • A fast-heating apparatus with rotation system was developed for HTL trails. • Over 24 wt% of biocrude was gained from fast co-HTL at 400 °C, 16 min, and ratio of 1:1. • Up to 43% of phenols were obtained in biocrude from the fast co-HTL process. • Maximum HHV of hydrochar was 27 MJ/kg. Fast Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) has emerged as a versatile means of converting wet biomass into bio-crude oil. This study was aimed to explore a fast hydrothermal co-liquefaction (co-HTL) platform to valorize corn stover and cow manure by evaluating several reaction parameters (i.e., residence time, reaction temperature, and feedstocks mass ratio). The highest yield (over 24 wt%) of bio-crude oil was achieved under the moderate condition (400 °C, 16 min, and the mass ratio of 1:1). The Higher heating value (HHV) of bio-crude oil was around 34 MJ/kg. Up to 43% of selectivity toward phenols in bio-crude oil was gained from fast co-HTL maintained for 30 min. The properties of hydrochar were comprehensively characterized by CHNS elemental analysis, SEM, EDX, and FTIR. The highest HHV of hydrochar was 27.31 MJ/kg, suggesting the high potential as a solid fuel. CO 2 as the dominant gaseous fraction were identified and quantified by GC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The rheological behavior of corn stover slurry at different plant scales was obtained. • Particle size and porosity are the key factors affecting rheological behavior. • Size reduction to cellular scale could significantly reduce the viscosity and yield stress. • Quantitative analysis for free water amount, particle size and rheological parameters. A fundamental understanding of the rheology of high-solids lignocellulose slurry is essential for the design of efficient cellulosic ethanol production processes and bioreactors. Here we analyzed the rheological properties of high-solids corn stover slurries with particles size ranged from tissue scale to cellular scale. Results showed that the apparent viscosity/yield stress decreased with the increase of free water amount and the decrease of particle size, and the quantitative relationships among them were obtained. A 300-fold and 130-fold decrease in apparent viscosity and yield stress (30 % solids loading) were observed when the corn stover was reduced to cellular scale (≤ 50 μm). Further analysis revealed that size reduction to tissue scale reduces the viscosity and yield stress by alleviating the interactions between particles, while size reduction to cellular scale not only weakens the particle interactions, but also increases free water amount due to destruction of cell lumen, thus greatly enhances the rheological behaviors. And this improvement is undoubtedly of great significance for inter-unit operation and mixing energy saving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• PAM pretreatment removed nearly 90% of hemicellulose and lignin from corn stover. • 87% of cellulose was recovered in the solid residue under mild conditions. • Xylose remained in the liquid as the main degradation product of hemicellulose. • Cellulose-rich residue yielded 90% glucose after enzymatic hydrolysis. Lignocellulose fractionation is a primary treatment to enhance cellulose accessibility and multi-component use. Herein, the development of a one-step fractionation is reported for cellulose enrichment from corn stover using a low concentration of peracetic acid combined with maleic acid (PAM). The effects of pretreatment parameters on the contents of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin were investigated. After cooking for 1 h at 130 °C with 1.5 wt% peracetic acid and 3 wt% maleic acid, 86.83% of corn stover cellulose remained in the solid residue while 88.21% of hemicellulose and 87.77% of lignin dissolved into the aqueous liquid. Hemicellulose was primarily hydrolyzed into xylose with 84.58% recovered during the PAM process. The cellulose-rich residue was enzymatically hydrolyzed with a glucose yield of 89.65%, which was two to three times that of untreated substrate. Generally, the proposed process offers a promising approach for efficient fractionation of lignocellulose under mild and environmental-friendly conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Different types of pretreatments had various effects on properties of corn stover. • Correlation analysis was conducted on properties of different pretreated corn stover. • Content and exposure of cellulose had positive correlation on glucose yield. • The destruction of spatial structure had positive correlation on glucose yield. • Quantitative relationships between properties and glucose yield were established. Pretreatment is a key step in the energy utilization of lignocellulosic biomass. Different types of pretreatments (ultrafine grinding pretreatment, alkaline hydroxide peroxide pretreatment, dilute acid pretreatment, and ammonia fiber expansion pretreatment) were conducted on corn stover. The lignocellulosic composition, microstructural parameters, and glucose yield of differently pretreated corn stover were characterized and compared. Then qualitative and quantitative correlation analyses of the parameters were carried out to explore the correlations among the composition, microstructure properties, and enzymatic hydrolysis efficacy of corn stover after different types of pretreatments and identify the main properties affecting enzymatic hydrolysis. Qualitative correlation analysis found that cellulose content, specific surface area, pore volume, enzyme-accessible pore volume, and surface area of cellulose had significant positive correlations with glucose yield. The results of quantitative correlation analysis were GY = 15.01 × cellulose content-339.05, GY = 13.06 × SSA + 172.35, GY = 7226.27 × PV + 129.14, GY = 8628.61 × EAPV + 125.61, and GY = 1.18 × SAC-287.21. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The deconstruction of cell walls in molecular-level during ball milling was evaluated. • Mechanical fragmentation could efficiently modify the supramolecular structure of cellulose-hemicelluloses-lignin matrix. • Ball milling led to the depolymerization of the complex polymeric structure of cell wall, especially the polysaccharides. • Micromorphology features of corn stover were significantly changed by mechanical action. In this work, the deconstruction mechanism of corn stover cell wall polymers during ball milling was evaluated. The characterization showed that ball milling not only brought about the dissociation of the cross-linked cellulose-hemicellulose-lignin complex but also led to the depolymerization of the cell-wall polymers especially the carbohydrates. Micromorphology characterization revealed that mechanical treatment disrupted the orderly fibrillar matrices with a porous structure. The breakage of β-1,4 glycosidic bonds in cellulose and the decomposition of arabinoxylans indicated the modification in polysaccharide chains. The degradation of lignin-carbohydrate complex (LCC) linkages and the cleavage of β-O-4′ linkages in lignin approved the partial degradation of lignin. In conclusion, mechanochemistry is an efficient force to make the polymers in plant fibers more digestible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]