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Purpose: Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) has spread throughout the world. It was initially defined as a potentially severe syndrome affecting the respiratory tract, but it has since been shown to be a systemic disease with relevant extrapulmonary manifestations that increase mortality. The endocrine system has been found to be vulnerable to COVID-19 infection. The current review aims to evaluate the available data on the impact of COVID-19 infection and treatment, as well as COVID-19 vaccines, on adrenal gland function, particularly in patients with GC disorders., Methods: A thorough search of published peer-reviewed studies in PubMed was performed using proper keywords., Results: Adrenal viral tropism and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) replication in the adrenal glands have been demonstrated, and adrenal insufficiency (AI) is a rare, but potentially severe complication in COVID-19 disease, whose recognition can be difficult if only for the empirical treatments administered in the early stages. Glucocorticoid (GC) treatment have had a pivotal role in preventing clinical deterioration in patients with COVID-19, but long-term GC use may increase COVID-19-related mortality and the development of iatrogenic AI. Patients with GC disorders, especially AI and Cushing's syndrome, have been identified as being at high risk of COVID-19 infection and complications. Published evidence suggests that AI patient awareness and proper education may help adjust GC replacement therapy appropriately when necessary, thereby reducing COVID-19 severity. The COVID-19 pandemic has had an impact on AI management, particularly in terms of adherence to patients' care plans and self-perceived challenges. On the other hand, published evidence suggests that the clinical course of COVID-19 may be affected by the severity of hypercortisolism in patients with CS. Therefore, to ameliorate the risk profile in these patients, cortisol levels should be adequately controlled, along with careful monitoring of metabolic and cardiovascular comorbidities. To date, the COVID-19 vaccine remains the only available tool to face SARS-CoV-2, and it should not be treated differently in patients with AI and CS., Conclusion: SARS-CoV-2 infection has been linked to adrenal damage and AI is a rare complication in COVID-19 disease, requiring prompt recognition. Educational efforts and patient awareness may reduce COVID-19 severity in patients with AI. Control of cortisol levels and monitoring of complications may improve the clinical course of COVID-19 in patients with CS., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

The polymorphism L412F in TLR3 has been associated with several infectious diseases. However, the mechanism underlying this association is still unexplored. Here, we show that the L412F polymorphism in TLR3 is a marker of severity in COVID-19. This association increases in the sub-cohort of males. Impaired macroautophagy/autophagy and reduced TNF/TNFα production was demonstrated in HEK293 cells transfected with TLR3 L412F -encoding plasmid and stimulated with specific agonist poly(I:C). A statistically significant reduced survival at 28 days was shown in L412F COVID-19 patients treated with the autophagy-inhibitor hydroxychloroquine (p = 0.038). An increased frequency of autoimmune disorders such as co-morbidity was found in L412F COVID-19 males with specific class II HLA haplotypes prone to autoantigen presentation. Our analyses indicate that L412F polymorphism makes males at risk of severe COVID-19 and provides a rationale for reinterpreting clinical trials considering autophagy pathways. Abbreviations: AP: autophagosome; AUC: area under the curve; BafA1: bafilomycin A1; COVID-19: coronavirus disease-2019; HCQ: hydroxychloroquine; RAP: rapamycin; ROC: receiver operating characteristic; SARS-CoV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; TLR: toll like receptor; TNF/TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor.

The pandemic of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), a disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is causing high and rapid morbidity and mortality. Immune system response plays a crucial role in controlling and resolving the viral infection. Exogenous or endogenous glucocorticoid excess is characterized by increased susceptibility to infections, due to impairment of the innate and adaptive immune system. In addition, diabetes, hypertension, obesity and thromboembolism are conditions overrepresented in patients with hypercortisolism. Thus patients with chronic glucocorticoid (GC) excess may be at high risk of developing COVID-19 infection with a severe clinical course. Care and control of all comorbidities should be one of the primary goals in patients with hypercortisolism requiring immediate and aggressive treatment. The European Society of Endocrinology (ESE), has recently commissioned an urgent clinical guidance document on management of Cushing's syndrome in a COVID-19 period. In this review, we aim to discuss and expand some clinical points related to GC excess that may have an impact on COVID-19 infection, in terms of both contagion risk and clinical outcome. This document is addressed to all specialists who approach patients with endogenous or exogenous GC excess and COVID-19 infection., (© 2020. The Author(s).)

Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors have no competing interests.

The presence of SARS-CoV-2 was officially documented in Europe at the end of February 2020. Despite many observations, the real impact of COVID-19 in the European Union (EU), its underlying factors and their contribution to mortality and morbidity outcomes were never systematically investigated. The aim of the present work is to provide an overview and a meta-analysis of main predictors and of country differences of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection-associated mortality rate (MR) in hospitalized patients. Out of 3714 retrieved articles, 87 studies were considered, including 35,486 patients (mean age 60.9 ± 8.2 years) and 5867 deaths. After adjustment for confounders, diabetes mellitus was the best predictors of MR in an age- and sex-dependent manner, followed by chronic pulmonary obstructive diseases and malignancies. In both the US and Europe, MR was higher than that reported in Asia (25[20;29] % and 20[17;23] % vs. 13[10;17]%; both p < 0.02). Among clinical parameters, dyspnea, fatigue and myalgia, along with respiratory rate, emerged as the best predictors of MR. Finally, reduced lymphocyte and platelet count, along with increased D-dimer levels, all significantly contributed to increased mortality. The optimization of glucose profile along with an adequate thrombotic complications preventive strategy must become routine practice in diseased SARS-CoV-2 infected patients.

Background: While SARS-CoV-2 similarly infects men and women, COVID-19 outcome is less favorable in men. Variability in COVID-19 severity may be explained by differences in the host genome., Methods: We compared poly-amino acids variability from WES data in severely affected COVID-19 patients versus SARS-CoV-2 PCR-positive oligo-asymptomatic subjects., Findings: Shorter polyQ alleles (≤22) in the androgen receptor (AR) conferred protection against severe outcome in COVID-19 in the first tested cohort (both males and females) of 638 Italian subjects. The association between long polyQ alleles (≥23) and severe clinical outcome (p = 0.024) was also validated in an independent cohort of Spanish men <60 years of age (p = 0.014). Testosterone was higher in subjects with AR long-polyQ, possibly indicating receptor resistance (p = 0.042 Mann-Whitney U test). Inappropriately low serum testosterone level among carriers of the long-polyQ alleles (p = 0.0004 Mann-Whitney U test) predicted the need for intensive care in COVID-19 infected men. In agreement with the known anti-inflammatory action of testosterone, patients with long-polyQ and age ≥60 years had increased levels of CRP (p = 0.018, not accounting for multiple testing)., Interpretation: We identify the first genetic polymorphism that appears to predispose some men to develop more severe disease. Failure of the endocrine feedback to overcome AR signaling defects by increasing testosterone levels during the infection leads to the polyQ tract becoming dominant to serum testosterone levels for the clinical outcome. These results may contribute to designing reliable clinical and public health measures and provide a rationale to test testosterone as adjuvant therapy in men with COVID-19 expressing long AR polyQ repeats., Funding: MIUR project "Dipartimenti di Eccellenza 2018-2020" to Department of Medical Biotechnologies University of Siena, Italy (Italian D.L. n.18 March 17, 2020) and "Bando Ricerca COVID-19 Toscana" project to Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Senese. Private donors for COVID-19 research and charity funds from Intesa San Paolo., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is a global public health issue which has profound effects on most aspects of societal well-being, including physical and mental health. A plethora of studies globally have suggested the existence of a sex disparity in the severity and outcome of COVID-19 patients, mainly due to mechanisms of virus infection, immune response to the virus, development of systemic inflammation, and consequent systemic complications, particularly thromboembolism. Epidemiological data report a sex difference in the severity of COVID-19, with a more favorable course of the disease in women compared to men regardless of age, although the rate of SARS-CoV-2 infection seems to be similar in both sexes. Sex hormones, including androgens and estrogens, may not only impact virus entry and load, but also shape the clinical manifestations, complications, and ultimately the outcome of the disease. The current review comprehensively summarizes the current literature on sex disparities in susceptibility and outcome of COVID-19 as well as the literature underpinning the pathophysiological and molecular mechanisms, which may provide a rationale to a sex disparity. These mechanisms include sex hormone influence on factors that facilitate virus entry and priming, immune and inflammatory response, as well as coagulation and thrombosis diathesis. Based on present evidence, women appear to be relatively protected from COVID-19 because of a more effective immune response and a less pronounced systemic inflammation, with consequent moderate clinical manifestations of the disease, together with a lesser predisposition to thromboembolism. Conversely, men appear to be particularly susceptible to COVID-19 because of a less effective immune response with consequent severe clinical manifestations of the disease, together with a greater predisposition to thromboembolism. In the elderly, generally characterized by the phenomenon of inflammaging, sex disparities in overall mortality following SARS-CoV-2 infection are even more palpable as elderly men appear to be more prone to severe COVID-19 because of a greater predisposition to infections, a weaker immune defense, and an enhanced thrombotic state compared to women. The information revealed from the review highlights potential novel therapeutic approaches employing the administration of hormonal or antihormonal therapy in combination with antiviral drugs in COVID-19 patients., (© 2020 S. Karger AG, Basel.)

Background: A pandemic outbreak of COVID‐19 has been sweeping the world since December. It begins as a respiratory infection that, mainly in men with diabetes or renal impairment, evolves into a systemic disease, with SARDS, progressive endothelial cell damage, abnormal clotting and impaired cardiovascular and liver function. Some clinical trials are testing biological drugs to limit the immune system dysregulation, "cytokines storm," that causes the systemic complications of COVID‐19. The contraindications of these drugs and their cost raise concerns over the implications of their widespread availability. Objectives: Numerous clinical and experimental studies have revealed a role for the nitric oxide (NO)‐cyclic GMP‐phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) pathway in modulating low‐grade inflammation in patients with metabolic diseases, offering cardiovascular protection. PDE5 inhibition favors an anti‐inflammatory response by modulating activated T cells, reducing cytokine release, lowering fibrosis, increasing oxygen diffusion, stimulating vascular repair. PDE5 is highly expressed in the lungs, where its inhibition improves pulmonary fibrosis, a complication of severe COVID‐19 disease. Materials and methods: We performed a systematic review of all evidence documenting any involvement of the NO‐cGMP‐PDE5 axis in the pathophysiology of COVID‐19, presenting the ongoing clinical trials aimed at modulating this axis, including our own "silDEnafil administration in DiAbetic and dysmetaboLic patients with COVID‐19 (DEDALO trial)." Results: The reviewed evidence suggests that PDE5 inhibitors could offer a new strategy in managing COVID‐19 by (i) counteracting the Ang‐II‐mediated downregulation of AT‐1 receptor; (ii) acting on monocyte switching, thus reducing pro‐inflammatory cytokines, interstitial infiltration and the vessel damage responsible for alveolar hemorrhage‐necrosis; (iii) inhibiting the transition of endothelial and smooth muscle cells to mesenchymal cells in the pulmonary artery, preventing clotting and thrombotic complications. Discussion and Conclusion: If the ongoing trials presented herein should provide positive findings, the low cost, wide availability and temperature stability of PDE5 inhibitors could make them a major resource to combat COVID‐19 in developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reference 1 Fallerini C. SELP Asp603Asn and severe thrombosis in COVID-19 males. B Correction: J Hematol Oncol (2021) 14:123 b https://doi.org/10.1186/s13045-021-01136-9 The original article [[1]] mistakenly omitted a sentence in the Acknowledgements section which the authors include ahead: 'Two of several authors of this publication are members of the European Reference Network for rare haematological diseases EuroBloodNet.'. Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. [Extracted from the article]