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We have investigated whether the pro-apoptotic properties of the G41S mutant of human cytochrome c can be explained by a higher than wild-type peroxidase activity triggered by phospholipid binding. A key complex in mitochondrial apoptosis involves cytochrome c and the phospholipid cardiolipin. In this complex cytochrome c has its native axial Met80 ligand dissociated from the haem-iron, considerably augmenting the peroxidase capability of the haem group upon H2O2 binding. By EPR spectroscopy we reveal that the magnitude of changes in the paramagnetic haem states, as well as the yield of protein-bound free radical, is dependent on the phospholipid used and is considerably greater in the G41S mutant. A high-resolution X-ray crystal structure of human cytochrome cwas determined and, in combinationwith the radical EPR signal analysis, two tyrosine residues, Tyr46 and Tyr48, have been rationalized to be putative radical sites. Subsequent single and double tyrosine-to-phenylalanine mutations revealed that the EPR signal of the radical, found to be similar in all variants, including G41S and wild-type, originates not from a single tyrosine residue, but is instead a superimposition of multiple EPR signals from different radical sites. We propose a mechanism of multiple radical formations in the cytochrome c-phospholipid complexes under H2O2 treatment, consistent with the stabilization of the radical in the G41S mutant, which elicits a greater peroxidase activity from cytochrome c and thus has implications in mitochondrial apoptosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Formation of cytochrome c (cyt c)/cardiolipin (CL) peroxidase complex selective toward peroxidation of polyunsaturated CLs is a pre-requisite for mitochondrial membrane permeabilization. Tyrosine residues – via the generation of tyrosyl radicals (Tyr; are likely reactive intermediates of the peroxidase cycle leading to CL peroxidation. We used mutants of horse heart cyt c in which each of the four Tyr residues was substituted for Phe and assessed their contribution to the peroxidase catalysis. Tyr67Phe mutation was associated with a partial loss of the oxygenase function of the cyt c/CL complex and the lowest concentration of H2O2-induced Tyr radicals in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra. Our MS experiments directly demonstrated decreased production of CL-hydroperoxides (CL-OOH) by Tyr67Phe mutant. Similarly, oxidation of a phenolic substrate, Amplex Red, was affected to a greater extent in Tyr67Phe than in three other mutants. Tyr67Phe mutant exerted high resistance to H2O2-induced oligomerization. Measurements of Tyr fluorescence, hetero-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and computer simulations position Tyr67 in close proximity to the porphyrin ring heme iron and one of the two axial heme-iron ligand residues, Met80. Thus, the highly conserved Tyr67 is a likely electron-donor (radical acceptor) in the oxygenase half-reaction of the cyt c/CL peroxidase complex. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Damage of presynaptic mitochondria could result in release of proapoptotic factors that threaten the integrity of the entire neuron. We discovered that α-synuclein (Syn) forms a triple complex with anionic lipids (such as cardiolipin) and cytochrome c, which exerts a peroxidase activity. The latter catalyzes covalent heteroligomerization of Syn with cytochrome c into high molecular weight aggregates. Syn is a preferred substrate of this reaction and is oxidized more readily than cardiolipin, dopamine, and other phenolic substrates. Co-localization of Syn with cytochrome c was detected in aggregates formed upon proapoptotic stimulation of SH-SY5Y and HeLa cells and in dopaminergic substantia nigra neurons of rotenone-treated rats. Syn-cardiolipin exerted protection against cytochrome c-induced caspase-3 activation in a cell-free system, particularly in the presence of H2O2. Direct delivery of Syn into mouse embryonic cells conferred resistance to proapoptotic caspase-3 activation. Conversely, small interfering RNA depletion of Syn in HeLa cells made them more sensitive to dopamine-induced apoptosis. In human Parkinson disease substantia nigra neurons, two-thirds of co-localized Syn-cytochrome c complexes occurred in Lewy neurites. Taken together, these results indicate that Syn may prevent execution of apoptosis in neurons through covalent hetero-oligomerization of cytochrome c. This immediate protective function of Syn is associated with the formation of the peroxidase complex representing a source of oxidative stress and postponed damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Native cytochrome c (cyt C) has a compact tertiary structure with a hexacoordinated heme iron and functions in electron transport in mitochondria and apoptosis in the cytoplasm. However, the possibility that protein modifications confer additional functions to cyt c has not been explored. Disruption of methionine 80 (M80)-Fe ligation of cyt c under nitrative stress has been reported. To model this alteration and determine if it confers new properties to cyt c, a cyt c mutant (M80A) was constitutively expressed in cells. M80A-cyt c has increased peroxidase activity and is spontaneously released from mitochondria, translocating to the cytoplasm and nucleus in the absence of apoptosis. Moreover, M80A models endogenously nitrated cyt c because nitration of WT-cyt c is associated with its translocation to the cytoplasm and nucleus. Further, M80A cyt c may up-regulate protective responses to nitrative stress. Our findings raise the possibility that endogenous protein modifications that disrupt the M80-Fe ligation (such as tyrosine nitration) stimulate nuclear translocation and confer new functions to cyt c in nonapoptotic cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In mitochondrial apoptosis, the formation of cytochrome c–cardiolipin complex ([CL-cyt c]) with peroxidase properties is an early event in the cascade of reactions that leads to cell death. Herein, we report the synthesis of a new prodrug, (2-hydroxyamino-vinyl)-triphenyl-phosphonium (HVTP), which compartmentalizes exclusively into mitochondria, undergoes a [CL-cyt c]-catalyzed bioactivation to nitric oxide (NO), inhibits peroxidase activity, and protects cells from apoptosis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Mitochondria have emerged as the major regulatory platform responsible for the coordination of numerous metabolic reactions as well as cell death processes, whereby the execution of intrinsic apoptosis includes the production of reactive oxygen species fueling oxidation of cardiolipin (CL) catalyzed by cytochrome (Cyt) c. As this oxidation occurs within the peroxidase complex of Cyt c with CL, the latter represents a promising target for the discovery and design of drugs with antiapoptotic mechanisms of action. In this work, we designed and synthesized a new group of mitochondria-targeted imidazole-substituted analogs of stearic acid TPP-n-ISAs with various positions of the attached imidazole group on the fatty acid (n = 6, 8, 10, 13, and 14). By using a combination of absorption spectroscopy and EPR protocols (continuous wave electron paramagnetic resonance and electron spin echo envelope modulation) we demonstrated that TPP-n-ISAs indeed were able to potently suppress CL-induced structural rearrangements in Cyt c, paving the way to its peroxidase competence. TPP-n-ISA analogs preserved the low-spin hexa-coordinated heme-iron state in Cyt c/CL complexes whereby TPP-6-ISA displayed a significantly more effective preservation pattern than TPP-14-ISA. Elucidation of these intermolecular stabilization mechanisms of Cyt c identified TPP-6-ISA as an effective inhibitor of the peroxidase function of Cyt c/CL complexes with a significant antiapoptotic potential realized in mouse embryonic cells exposed to ionizing irradiation. These experimental findings were detailed and supported by all-atom molecular dynamics simulations. Based on the experimental data and computation predictions, we identified TPP-6-ISA as a candidate drug with optimized antiapoptotic potency. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Mammalian cytochrome c (Cytc) plays a key role in cellular life and death decisions, functioning as an electron carrier in the electron transport chain and as a trigger of apoptosis when released from the mitochondria. However, its regulation is not well understood. We show that the major fraction of Cytc isolated from kidneys is phosphorylated on Thr28, leading to a partial inhibition of respiration in the reaction with cytochrome c oxidase. To further study the effect of Cytc phosphorylation in vitro, we generated T28E phosphomimetic Cytc, revealing superior behavior regarding protein stability and its ability to degrade reactive oxygen species compared with wild-type unphosphorylated Cytc. Introduction of T28E phosphomimetic Cytc into Cytc knock-out cells shows that intact cell respiration, mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm), and ROS levels are reduced compared with wild type. As we show by high resolution crystallography of wild-type and T28E Cytc in combination with molecular dynamics simulations, Thr28 is located at a central position near the heme crevice, the most flexible epitope of the protein apart from the N and C termini. Finally, in silico prediction and our experimental data suggest that AMP kinase, which phosphorylates Cytc on Thr28 in vitro and colocalizes with Cytc to the mitochondrial intermembrane space in the kidney, is the most likely candidate to phosphorylate Thr28 in vivo. We conclude that Cytc phosphorylation is mediated in a tissuespecific manner and leads to regulation of electron transport chain flux via "controlled respiration," preventing Δψm hyperpolarization, a known cause of ROS and trigger of apoptosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]