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Mulching is a widely adopted agronomic practice, often used as a water-saving strategy due to its effectiveness in reducing soil evaporation. However, effects vary depending on the materials used and the extent of mulch soil coverage. Consequently, the impacts of mulching may differ considerably across production systems, preventing the establishment of reliable guidelines for irrigation water management. The objective of this study is to comprehensively review existing literature that compares mulching versus no-mulching management, aiming to gain a deeper understanding of the effects of mulching on soil evaporation (Es), crop coefficients (Kc), and actual crop evapotranspiration (ETc act). 58 studies were selected. The impact of mulching was particularly notable in the early crop stages, when the soil is not fully covered. Data in literature shows that plastic films were more effective in reducing Kc than organic materials. However, this effect, while evident during the early crop stages, diminished throughout the rest of the season. Black plastic films were more effective during the early crop stages compared to other colored plastics, particularly relative to the decrease of Kc, but this effect also diminishes during the rest of the season. Building upon these findings, the study provides guidelines for expected reductions in Kc values based on the type of crop, crop stage, and the mulching material most used in each cropping system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Citrus is one of the most valuable crops in Syria, with the largest production areas being in the coastal provinces of Tartus and Latakia, where this study was performed. A companion paper reported on the basal crop coefficients derived from the field water balance and on the performance assessment of various irrigation methods used in a citrus orchard located in the same region. That study evidenced the need for the improved management of irrigation water, mainly reducing water applications and increasing productivity, thus leading to the current research. The main objectives consisted of (i) providing a set of reliable basal (Kcb) and average (Kc) crop coefficients to be used in practice in the citrus orchards of the Syrian coastal area, while accounting for the diversity of characteristics observed; (ii) to estimate the seasonal consumptive use of typical orchards under different climate-demand and deficit-irrigation scenarios; and (iii) to assess possible water savings and related yield reductions. The previously calibrated water balance model SIMDualKc was used for these purposes. The computed Kcb values for the mid-season and average demand for water ranged from 0.52, when the plant density was low, to 0.84, when plant density was very high. The corresponding Kc values, which further reflected the impact of drip irrigation on controlling soil evaporation, were 0.72 and 0.97, respectively. Overall, the consumptive use of water was estimated to range from 867 to 1573 mm. The assessed water-saving scenarios consisted of adopting increased management-allowed depletion (MAD) thresholds relative to the p depletion fraction for no stress: MAD = 1.05, 1.10, 1.20, and 1.30 p. For trees under a very high climatic demand, water savings ranged from 12 to 34%, but the yield losses induced by the water deficits ranged from 8 to 48%. Although the selection of optimal strategies should be based upon economic terms, these may only be used when the Syrian economy recovers from civil war and the current crisis. The present results show the feasibility of adopting such MAD thresholds for building an irrigation management platform. The data provided by the current study are valuable because they can be efficiently used to support of the irrigation management of Syrian citrus production systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Very-high density olive orchards have been expanding rapidly in the Alentejo region (Portugal). • The long-term impact of irrigation practices on soil salinization/sodification was assessed using HYDRUS-1D. • Soil salinization/sodification risks from current monitored practices were found to be low. • Modeled scenarios further considered waters with lower quality, maize as an alternative crop, and climate change. • The variability and uncertainty of model predictions recommend the close monitoring of the problem at the local scale. Abstract Deficit irrigation practices carried out in very high-density olive orchards grown in the Alentejo region of southern Portugal can bring important economic benefits in terms of water savings, yields, and oils. They can also result in serious salinization/sodification problems without proper management of soil and water resources. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the long-term (30 years) impact of those irrigation practices on local soil resources using a multicomponent transport modeling approach embedded in the HYDRUS-1D model. Soil salinization and sodification risks were quantified for 160 soil profiles by considering eight different scenarios: current monitored irrigation practices (S1), using waters of variable quality (S2-S6), planting maize as an alternative crop (S7), and using climate change projections for the region (S8). Despite the large observed variability, simulations that considered current irrigation practices (S1) produced average values of the electrical conductivity of the soil solution (EC sw) at the end of the leaching seasons always below the threshold limit for crops moderately tolerant to soil salinity. In this scenario, the average values of the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) were also kept within the same magnitude of those determined at the beginning of the simulation period (initial conditions). Irrigations with worse quality waters (S2-S6) led to higher EC sw and SAR values. Although annual rainfall amounts influenced the salinity build-up, the SAR evolution depended mainly on water quality. In maize soil profiles (S7), the simulated EC sw and SAR values were lower than in olive soil profiles, with irrigation practices contributing to salt removal during the seasons. Conversely, the climate change scenario (S8) resulted in slightly higher EC sw and SAR values than those simulated for current conditions, indicating a potentially greater risk of soil degradation in the near future. Although current irrigation practices seem to present relatively low soil salinization/sodification risks, the variability of results and the uncertainty associated with model predictions indicate that close monitoring to prevent further degradation of soil and water resources in the region should be recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Secondary salinization has long been reported in the Roxo irrigation district (RID), southern Portugal, due to the use of saline-prone irrigation water and the existence of poorly structured soils. This study assessed the soil water and salt budgets in nine commercial orchards located in the RID using the multiple ion chemistry module available in the HYDRUS-1D model during the 2019 and 2020 growing seasons. The studied crops were almond, olive, citrus (orange, mandarin, and clementine), and pomegranate. The model successfully simulated soil water contents measured in the different fields but there was a clear underestimation of the electrical conductivity of the soil saturation paste extract (EC e) in some locations, while simulations of the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) were generally acceptable. Modeling errors were mostly associated with missing information on fertigation events rather than related to the effects of irrigation water quality. The water and salt balances were also computed for the 1979–2020 period. Considering the probability of non-exceedance of salt accumulation during this period, the risk of salinity build-up was high to very high for the very dry years in most fields, except in the citrus sites. The factors influencing the salt accumulation were the irrigation strategy, the seasonal irrigation and rainfall depths, the duration of the crop growth period, the rainfall distribution in the late and non-growing stages, the soil drainage conditions, and the irrigation water quality. For the current climate conditions and irrigation water quality, the risk of soil salinity levels affecting crop development and yields was found to be minor. This means that, despite salts tended to accumulate in the rootzone over a season, under current conditions the salinity stress did not reach harmful levels for plants. Only in two of the study sites, there was a need to promote salt leaching. Hence, this study shows that soil salinization risks in the study area are low but, for given locations during drier seasons, there is a need for tailored irrigation solutions aimed at the conservation of soil and water resources. • Soil salinization risks in nine commercial orchards were assessed with HYDRUS-1D. • The probability of non-exceedance of salt accumulation was computed for 1979–2020. • The risk of salinity build-up was high to very high for the very dry years in most fields. • For current conditions, the risk of soil salinity levels affecting crop development was minor. • Tailored irrigation solutions should be considered in some cases in dry and very-dry years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global climate change accentuates the seasonal and interannual irregularity of temperature and precipitation of the Mediterranean climate. The consequences of this variability on wheat production are felt on its development cycle and productivity, making the production chain of this crop vulnerable to the occurrence of years with abnormal distributions of precipitation and with extreme temperatures. Adaptation strategies like irrigation or fertilization can help to cope with the negative impacts of climate uncertainty. This study evaluated the effects of water regime and nitrogen (N) fertilization techniques on wheat production in southern Portugal based on the results of three trials conducted in two agricultural years (2016/2017 and 2017/2018) with contrasting climate conditions. Phenology and yield were evaluated by comparing water regimes (R1, full irrigation; R2, supplemental irrigation at four stages: start of stem extension, booting, anthesis, grain filling; R0, rainfed (in 2017/2018)) and N fertilization splitting/timing and type (conventional and enhanced efficiency fertilizers (EEFs): controlled-release N, stabilized with nitrification inhibitor, and stabilized with urease inhibitor). Significant effects of water regime on grain yield were obtained in 2016/2017, a year with extreme aridity and high water requirements felt from the tillering stage, in the trial with conventional fertilizers. In 2017/2018, when a beneficial seasonal rainfall distribution occurred, water regime did not influence grain yield, pointing to the feasibility of supplementary irrigation to maximize water productivity. Nitrogen fertilization influenced yield and its components, with the highest values of grain yield being obtained with conventional fertilizer. Regardless of the possible effects on grain quality, the use of EEF did not prove to have an indisputable effect on wheat yield in the conditions under which the trials were conducted. Comparison of the results in the two years accentuates the need to continue the evaluation of the influence of agronomic management in wheat production in the context of adaptation to the climatic uncertainty in Mediterranean regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evaluation of the role of different agronomic strategies in achieving sustainable wheat yields under variable Mediterranean climate conditions may involve the use of resource-use indicators that combine productivity and environmental impact. A two-seasons field experiment was conducted in South Portugal to study the effect of water regimes and nitrogen fertilization on wheat yield, grain quality and water use evaluated with water productivity and water footprint indicators. The water regime treatments were full irrigation, supplemental irrigation, and rainfed. Nitrogen fertilizer treatments, including conventional and enhanced efficiency fertilizers (EEF) were distinguished by N splitting and timing over the crop cycle. Contrasting meteorological variables in the two years caused distinct wheat productive responses. Although leading to lower grain yields, supplemental irrigation guaranteed a water productivity similar to full irrigation. The use of EEFs in which 50% of the total nitrogen was applied at the booting phase had a positive significant effect on grain protein content and on dough rheologic properties, indicating that late nitrogen applications benefit the technological quality of wheat. The average total water footprints estimated for the two seasons showed no relevant differences but the partition of the green, blue and grey components in irrigated wheat varied, with an increased importance of blue water consumptive use in the second year of the experiment. In fact, the ratio blue water footprint/green water footprint increased from 0.40 to 2.00 due to higher irrigation requirements. High grey water footprint in rainfed wheat was mostly influenced by lower yields in 2018–2019, and by an advantageous rainfall distribution during the 2017–2018 season. No significant reduction in grey water footprint was observed when using EEFs. A multivariate statistical approach through factor analysis (FA) and multivariate linear regression (MLR) was used to examine the data structure and correlation. FA resulted in three-factor models of yield and water use, yield components and wheat quality, in the first season. In the second, drier, season, variables most related with irrigation water use were clustered in one detached factor. The stepwise MLR pointed to a good prediction capability of water footprints from NDVI measured with proximal sensors at booting, anthesis, maturation and/or tillering. [Display omitted] • Water regimes and nitrogen fertilization of wheat evaluation through water footprint. • Supplemental irrigation guaranteed wheat water productivity similar to full irrigation. • Increased ratio blue/green water footprint with drier Mediterranean conditions. • Enhanced efficiency N fertilizers did not reduce wheat grey water footprint. • Good prediction of wheat water footprints using multiple linear regressions with proximal NDVI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]