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The main mass of material found in teeth is dentine, a bone-like tissue, riddled with micron-sized tubules and devoid of living cells. It provides support to the outer wear-resistant layer of enamel, and exhibits toughening mechanisms which contribute to crack resistance. And yet unlike most bone tissues, dentine does not remodel and consequently any accumulated damage does not 'self repair'. Because damage containment followed by tissue replacement is a prime reason for the crack-arresting microstructures found in most bones, the occurrence of toughening mechanisms without the biological capability to repair is puzzling. Here we consider the notion that dentine might be overdesigned for strength, because it has to compensate for the lack of cell-mediated healing mechanisms. Based on our own and on literature-reported observations, including quasistatic and fatigue properties, dentine design principles are discussed in light of the functional conditions under which teeth evolved. We conclude that dentine is only slightly overdesigned for everyday cyclic loading because usual mastication stresses may come close to its endurance strength. The in-built toughening mechanisms constitute an evolutionary benefit because they prevent catastrophic failure during rare overload events, which was probably very advantageous in our hunter gatherer ancestor times. From a bio-inspired perspective, understanding the extent of evolutionary overdesign might be useful for optimising biomimetic structures used for load bearing.

Tooth dentine and other bone-like materials contain carbonated hydroxyapatite nanoparticles within a network of collagen fibrils. It is widely assumed that the elastic properties of biogenic hydroxyapatites are identical to those of geological apatite. By applying hydrostatic pressure and by in situ measurements of the a- and c- lattice parameters using high energy X-ray diffraction, we characterize the anisotropic deformability of the mineral in the crowns and roots of teeth. The collected data allowed us to calculate the bulk modulus and to derive precise estimates of Young׳s moduli and Poisson׳s ratios of the biogenic mineral particles. The results show that the dentine apatite particles are about 20% less stiff than geological and synthetic apatites and that the mineral has an average bulk modulus K=82.7 GPa. A 5% anisotropy is observed in the derived values of Young׳s moduli, with E11≈91 GPa and E33≈96 GPa, indicating that the nanoparticles are only slightly stiffer along their long axis. Poisson׳s ratio spans ν≈0.30-0.35, as expected. Our findings suggest that the carbonated nanoparticles of biogenic apatite are significantly softer than previously thought and that their elastic properties can be considered to be nearly isotropic., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The tough bulk of dentin in teeth supports enamel, creating cutting and grinding biostructures with superior failure resistance that is not fully understood. Synchrotron-based diffraction methods, utilizing micro- and nanofocused X-ray beams, reveal that the nm-sized mineral particles aligned with collagen are precompressed and that the residual strains vanish upon mild annealing. We show the link between the mineral nanoparticles and known damage propagation trajectories in dentin, suggesting a previously overlooked compression-mediated toughening mechanism.

Teeth with intact crowns rarely split or fracture, despite decades of cyclic loading and occasional unexpected overload. This is largely attributed to the presence of dentine, since cracking and fracture of enamel have been frequently reported. Dentine is similar to bone, comprising mineralised collagen fibres as a main constituent. Unlike cortical bone, however, where microcracking and damage arrest are essential for re/modelling and healing, dentine can neither remodel nor regenerate. This raises questions regarding the evolutionary benefits of toughening, leading to uncertainty whether cracks actually appear in dentine in situ. Here we study the notion that circumpulpal dentine is usually protected against, rather than damaged by severe overloads, even though it is not much more massive or stronger than it needs to be. To address this, we examined hydrated teeth still within whole jawbones of freshly-slaughtered skeletally mature pigs, mechanically loaded until fracture. Force displacement curves, optical and electron microscopy combined with 3D microstructural analysis by conventional micro-computed tomography (μCT) revealed mostly brittle fracture paths in circumpulpal crown dentine. Once overload cracks reach this mass of dentine they propagate rapidly along straight paths often parallel to the enamel flanks of the oblong shovel shaped premolars. We find infrequent signs of active toughening mechanisms with minimal crack diversion, ligament bridging and microcracking. When such toughening is seen, it mainly appears in softer dentine in the root, or near the dentine-enamel-junction (DEJ) in mantle dentine. We observed shear bands in overloaded circumpulpal dentine, due to mutual gliding of upper and lower segments. These shear bands are formed as periodic arrays of rotated dentine fragments. The 3D data consistently demonstrate the importance of the layered tooth structure, containing a stiff outer enamel shell, a soft sub-DEJ interlayer and a stiff circumpulpal dentine bulk, for deflecting cracks from splitting the tooth. • Cracking dentine by occlusally compressing intact teeth is extremely difficult. • When circumpulpal dentine is overloaded, cracks appear brittle and straight. • Such cracks avoid the pulp; they run parallel to the DEJ or outwards, breaking enamel. • Continuous loading following circumpulpal dentine cracking may lead to shear-bands. • Ligament bridging, crack diversion and microcracks are prevalent in softer dentine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dentin in teeth is a bone-like nanocomposite built of carbonated hydroxyapatite (cHAP) mineral particles, protein, and water. It does not remodel nor heal and is excellently adapted for decades of mechanical function, due to the interplay between its constituents. Using samples of human origin, we combine heat treatments with synchrotron X-ray diffraction, second-harmonic generation microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and phase contrast-enhanced nanotomography to study the water-assisted functional coupling of the biocomposite components. Across roots we find a gradual reduction in the c-lattice parameter of the cHAP nanocrystals, from 6.894 Å externally down to 6.885 Å on the inside. Thus, the tissue formed at later stages of tooth development around the pulp contains crystals with smaller unit cells. In all regions, a compressive strain of ∼0.3% is observed upon drying by mild heating (125 °C). Dehydration also results in a substantial increase in the averaged microstrain fluctuations in the mineral nanoparticles. The mineral crystallite platelet lengths fall off from ∼36 nm externally to ∼26 nm closer to the pulp. Our results suggest that both morphology and tight mineral-collagen coupling allow mineral nanoparticles in dentin to sustain rather large stresses of 300 MPa, far exceeding mastication loads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Simulated loading of 3-rooted teeth reveals age-related functional changes. • Cementum thickening causes a stiffer response to masticatory loads. • Reduced tooth tilting is seen with increasing crown wear. • Narrower and reduced distributions of tensile stress are seen in roots of 'old' tooth models. In the course of a lifetime the crowns of teeth wear off, cementum thickens and the pulp closes-in or may stiffen. Little is known about how these changes affect the tooth response to load. Using a series of finite element models of teeth attached to the jawbone, and by comparing these to a validated model of a 'young' pig 3-rooted tooth, the effects of these structural changes were studied. Models of altered teeth show a stiffer response to mastication even when material properties used are identical to those found in 'young' teeth. This stiffening response to occlusal loads is mostly caused by the thicker cementum found in 'old' teeth. Tensile stresses associated with bending of dentine in the roots fall into a narrower distribution range with lower peak values. It is speculated that this is a possible protective adaptation mechanism of the aging tooth to avoid fracture. The greatest reduction in lateral motion was seen in the bucco-lingual direction. We propose that greater tooth motion during mastication is typical for the young growing animal. This motion is reduced in adulthood, favoring less off-axis loading, possibly to counteract natural bone resorption and consequent compromised anchoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]