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In multi-radio wireless mesh networks, one node is eligible to transmit packets over multiple channels to different destination nodes simultaneously. This feature of multi-radio wireless mesh network makes high throughput for the network and increase the chance for multi path routing. This is because the multiple channel availability for transmission decreases the probability of the most elegant problem called as interference problem which is either of interflow and intraflow type. For avoiding the problem like interference and maintaining the constant network performance or increasing the performance the WMN need to consider the packet aggregation and packet forwarding. Packet aggregation is process of collecting several packets ready for transmission and sending them to the intended recipient through the channel, while the packet forwarding holds the hop-by-hop routing. But choosing the correct path among different available multiple paths is most the important factor in the both case for a routing algorithm. Hence the most challenging factor is to determine a forwarding strategy which will provide the schedule for each node for transmission within the channel. In this research work we have tried to implement two forwarding strategies for the multi path multi radio WMN as the approximate solution for the above said problem. We have implemented Global State Routing (GSR) which will consider the packet forwarding concept and Aggregation Aware Layer 2 Routing (AAL2R) which considers the both concept i.e. both packet forwarding and packet aggregation. After the successful implementation the network performance has been measured by means of simulation study.

Segment Routing (SR) leverages source routing. A node steers a packet through a controlled set of instructions, called segments, by prepending the packet with an SR header. A segment can represent any instruction topological or service-based. SR allows to enforce a flow through any topological path while maintaining per-flow state only at the ingress node of the SR domain. The Segment Routing architecture can be directly applied to the MPLS dataplane with no change on the forwarding plane. It requires a minor extension to the existing link- state routing protocols. This document illustrates the application of Segment Routing to solve the BGP Egress Peer Engineering (BGP-EPE) requirement. The SR-based BGP-EPE solution allows a centralized (Software Defined Network, SDN) controller to program any egress peer policy at ingress border routers or at hosts within the domain.

Segment Routing (SR) allows for a flexible definition of end-to-end paths within IGP topologies by encoding paths as sequences of topological sub-paths, called "segments". These segments are advertised by the link-state routing protocols (IS-IS and OSPF). This draft describes the necessary IS-IS extensions that need to be introduced for Segment Routing operating on an MPLS data-plane.

Segment Routing (SR) leverages the source routing paradigm. A node steers a packet through a controlled set of instructions, called segments, by prepending the packet with an SR header. In the MPLS dataplane, the SR header is instantiated through a label stack. This document specifies the forwarding behavior to allow instantiating SR over the MPLS dataplane.

The application-specific network-on-chip (ASNoC) has been proposed as a promising solution to address the global communication challenges in terms of nanoscale system-on-chips. However, as the number of cores increases on chips, the power consumption and communication latency present major challenges for routing path allocation in ASNoCs. In this study, given the floorplan results and clustering of cores, we propose an efficient routing path allocation algorithm based on the Lagrangian relaxation for routing the traffic flows while minimizing the power consumption under constraints, such as latency constraints, physical link capacity constraints, and switch port constraints. In addition, we propose a modified shortest path algorithm based on the backtracking method to prevent deadlocks, which is critical for the correct operation of NoCs. Our experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method; the method has power overheads of less than 1% compared with designs that do not support a deadlock removal method.

The unmanned aerial system (UAS), as a typical aeronautical Ad-hoc network (AANET) system, which is composed of unmanned aerial vehicle clusters has a lot of advantages such as flexible deployment, excellent cost-benefit ratio and free from the effect of environment. It will be an important part of the space-sky information network in the future. Due to the fast-moving of nodes in AANET/UAS, the topology changes frequently. The routing overhead becomes huge and inefficient, and connectivity keeping becomes difficult. In this paper, a shortest path routing algorithm based on grid position no center(GPNC-SP algorithm) is proposed, which uses the logical grid distance to replace the original Euclidean distance to reduce the sensitivity of fast-moving nodes. This algorithm automatically computes and maintains the adjacency relationship and topology structure by perception and updating algorithm and adopts Dijkstra algorithm to achieve the shortest routing path. Also, a regional reconstruction strategy(RSS) is designed to optimize the routing path dynamically. At the same time, two metrics, i.e., the percentage of the effective communication area(Peca%) and the sensitivity with logical grid size (Sg) are used to determine the optional scope of logical grid width. Comparing with the two traditional typical routing protocols (DREAM and DSDV algorithms), this algorithm sacrifices a certain degree of communication distance to achieve better performances of network overhead, link stability, and calculating speed. The final simulation experiments under the Matlab environment demonstrate the effectiveness and practicality of this algorithm.

In a route with a network gap, a vehicle usually drops messages if it cannot find the next hop. In this case, communications may be disrupted. Therefore, it is very important to avoid network gaps when routing paths are established. This paper proposes a reliable routing scheme and aims to establish routing paths without network gaps to improve the packet delivery rate. In this scheme, a routing establishment algorithm based on road segments and virtual nodes is proposed. This algorithm can establish the routing paths without network gaps, so the packet loss caused by network gaps is avoided. Moreover, a message can be transmitted along the shortest routing path without a network gap, so the packet delivery rate is improved. Finally, this scheme is evaluated, and the data results show that the packet delivery rate is effectively improved.

The energy Internet concept has been considered as a new development stage of the smart grid, which aims to increase the energy transmission efficiency and optimize the energy dispatching in time and space. Energy router is a core device in the energy Internet and it connects all the devices together into a net structure and manages power flows among them. The research work presented in this paper described the energy router's structure and function expectations from the network perspective, and improved the existing energy router design. Open shortest path first (OSPF) protocol and virtual circuit switching mode are referenced from the Internet in the energy local area network (e-LAN) design. This paper proposed a design of an energy routing algorithm based on graph theory in an e-LAN. A lowest cost routing selection algorithm is designed according to the features of power transmission, and a source selection and routing design algorithm is proposed for very heavy load conditions. Both algorithms have been verified by case analyses.

Greedy Forward is a well-known technique used by most of the geographic routing algorithms to forward packets to the node that is geographically closer to the destination node. It is the simplest form of the proposed geographic routing algorithms and it is particularly attractive in sensor networks by bringing additional advantages such scalability, dynamism, and high delivery rates. However, in the presence of a hole (or voids), greedy forward techniques tend to fail. Thus, a hole bypass solution needs to be used in order to route packets to a node where greedy forwarding process can be resumed. In this work, we propose a new geographic routing algorithm called REACT that can bypass routing holes and create routing paths toward the sink node. Our solution takes advantage of the higher communication range of the sink node and the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) to enable the construction of routing paths by self-electing the next hop at each step while also performing data aggregation. No extra packets are required to configure the routing task. Our results clearly show an efficient data delivery achieved by the proposed algorithm in scenarios with routing holes with all the benefits of a greedy forwarding technique.

The Interplanetary Internet is a network that interconnects objects traveling in space and on planets such as satellites, rovers and comets. This network has very different communication conditions than the networks deployed on the surface of Earth. The large delays, intermittent connections and rough environment in space require the adoption of the Delay/Disruption Tolerant Network architecture/techniques. The currently used implementation of DTN interplanetary networks uses the Contact Graph Routing mechanism that we show, using the Interplanetary Overlay Network (ION) based experiments, has some shortcomings leading to less efficient use of the network. In this paper, we propose a novel model to represent such networks based on temporal graphs obtaining a near-real-time representation of these deterministic dynamic networks. This Modified Temporal Graph (MTG) model is then used for the implementation of our proposed routing algorithm, the Earliest Arrival Optimal Delivery Ratio (EAODR) routing algorithm. We provide the proof of correctness of EAODR, and we use our routing simulator to run experiments on a real-world network and also on large networks. We prove that EAODR outperforms the Contact Graph Routing (CGR) in terms of a decrease in delay of up to 12.9%.

Delay tolerant network (DTN) routing provides a communication primitive in intermittently disconnected networks, such as battlefield communications and human-contact networks. In these applications, the anonymity preserving mechanism, which hides the identities of communicating parties, plays an important role as a defense against cyber and physical attacks. While anonymous routing protocols for DTNs have been proposed in the past, to the best of our knowledge, there is no work that emphasizes analysis of the performance of these protocols. In this paper, we first design an abstract of anonymous routing protocols for DTNs and augment the existing solution with multi-copy message forwarding. Then, we construct simplified mathematical models, which can be used to understand the fundamental performance and security guarantees of onion-based anonymous routing in DTNs. To be specific, the delivery rate, message forwarding cost, traceable rate, and path and node anonymity are defined and analyzed. The numerical and simulation results using randomly generated contact graphs and the real traces demonstrate that our models provide very close approximations to the performance of the anonymous DTN routing protocol.

Quality of Service (QoS) assurance in Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a tough task, and it is more exciting due to the scarcity of resources. The requirement of different WSN applications running over has different constraints. In QoS, routing protocol the network has to balance the traffic. This paper presents a novel heuristic routing algorithm known as QoS assured Multi-objective Hybrid Routing Algorithm (Q-MOHRA) for Heterogeneous WSN. Q-MOHRA takes into account the link (energy, hop count, link quality indicator etc.) and path (jitter) metrics for optimal path selection. The performance of Q-MOHRA is evaluated through intensive simulation and equated with Simple Hybrid Routing Protocol (SHRP) and Dynamic Multi-objective Routing Algorithm (DyMORA). The metrics such as average energy consumption, residual energy, packet delivery ratio, jitter, and normalized routing load are used for comparison. The performance of Q-MOHRA has been observed to outclass SHRP and DyMORA. It improves the packet delivery ratio by 24.31% as compared to SHRP and 11.86% as compared to DyMORA. Q-MOHRA outperforms DyMORA in terms of average energy consumption by a factor of 8.27%.

Information-centric networking (ICN) is gradually becoming the alternative approach to the traditional Internet architecture through enlightening information (content) distribution on the Internet with content names. The growing rate of Internet traffic has adapted the content-centric architectures to better serve the user requirement of accessing data. Routing disseminates preliminary topology and strategy information as well as long-term changes in them and computes the routing table to coordinate the forwarding procedure. A good routing scheme is essential to reduce delay and to enhance the performance of the network with an efficient searching of the desired content item. In this paper, we present a novel scheme for ICN which evaluates the path for searching the desired content item with an efficient lookup process and we call as Intelligent Routing (IR). Our implement IR scheme utilizes the concept of ternary digital search for making an efficient lookup and evaluates the satisfaction score for making a forwarding decision. The simulation results recommend that IR scheme can reliably accomplish the better performance across other hashing and routing approaches proposed in this field.

In recent years, the idea of wireless three-dimensional network-on-chips (3D NoCs) was promoted in order to design many-core chips with greater performance and lower energy consumption. This technology is the combination of different dies that are stacked on each other. Therefore, it is necessary to propose a suitable routing mechanism for irregular wireless 3D NoCs that can support the agnostic topologies. In this paper, we propose a deadlock-free routing algorithm for wireless 3D NoCs, called Floyd-base Inter-chip Traffic distribution (FIT), which is based on Floyd routing algorithm. In FIT algorithm, the number of hops is reduced compared to the already established deterministic algorithms; moreover, the traffic distribution is improved. Evaluation results show that our proposed routing algorithm significantly improves the performance and throughput by reducing the energy consumption, the average hop count and the communication latency.

Routing protocols properties form an essential topic of research. Ensuring that a routing protocol is stable, loop free and reaches the global optimal topology solution is needed for both evaluating it and doing the required enhancements for it. There exist several trials in previous researches to enhance routing protocols. Those works depend on either theoretical models or simulation to validate their results. Existing validation models target lexical based routing metrics only. In this work, we propose a validation model for non-lexical routing metrics (such as Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol – EIGRP). Our validation model is based on abstract algebra. It helps in validating necessary routing properties and enhancing existing routing protocols in such a way that makes them meet those properties.

The advancements made in the wireless sensor networks have enabled the research communities to delve into the study of spatial reusability concepts. Due to the restricted capacity in wireless links, it is a significant to select the optimal route for packet transmission. The achievement of optimal route selection is verified by the high end-to-end throughput rate. Routing in WSNs is very challenging due to the inherent characteristics that distinguish these networks from other wireless networks like mobile ad hoc networks or cellular networks. In this paper, we have proposed an improved spatial reusability process using Single Path and Anypath Routing Protocols (SSAAR). The task of single path routing is to minimize the cost of the nodes in wireless links, whereas the task of any path routing is to assists the intermediate node who overhears the packet to participate in packet forwarding. Experimental results have shown the efficacy of our proposed work in terms of cost minimization functionalities.

Sensor networks designed especially for the multimedia applications require high data rate and better Quality of Service (QoS). Offering a reliable and energy efficient routing technique in a harsh and complex three-dimensional (3-D) environment for multimedia applications is a challenging job. Geo-routing and geometric routing have been efficient routing schemes for two-dimensional (2-D), but are unable to work properly for 3-D sensor networks. In order to enhance the resilience to link the dynamics in the 3-D sensor network, in this research an Enhanced Reliable Reactive Routing (ER3) is proposed. ER3 is an advancement to the existing reactive routing schemes, to provide energy efficient and reliable routing of data packets in the complex 3-D sensor networks for multimedia applications. The major attraction of ER3 is its backoff scheme, which occurs in the route discovery phase. In backoff scheme robust pilot paths formed between the source and destination are calculated to enable cooperative forwarding of the data packets. The data packets in ER3 are forwarded greedily to the destination from the source and doesn’t require any prior location information of the nodes. The encompassing simulations suggest that the ER3 outperforms the existing routing protocols on the basis of energy efficiency, low latency and high packet delivery ratio.

In this paper, we have exploited the weight trusted routing (WTR) mechanism to detect and eliminate the malicious nodes involved during the routing path formation in smart-home environments where the routing between the communicating entities is performed through the mesh architecture. Further, to provide a secure communication against malicious behavior of nodes, the proposed mechanism uses Dijkstra’s shortest path routing algorithm in which the weights are deliberated using certain parameters such as node-distance, packet-loss and trust value of each node which is computed using social impact theory optimizer. Moreover, we have presented the network performance trade-off caused by secure path formation with conventional method and have proposed the WTR mechanism for eliminating the potential issues such as packet-loss ratio, end-to-end delay and network throughput. The commercial simulator NS2 is used to simulate and compare the network metrics for both conventional as well as proposed approach and is validated with experimental results over end-to-end delay and message delivery ratio against reported literature.

Asynchronous sleep schedule and geographical routing are two efficient and scalable solutions for wireless sensor networks (WSNs). However, the schedule may degrade the delay performance of the routing protocol, and the optimal combined utilization of these two solutions is still an open question. In this letter, we propose a geographical-based opportunistic routing protocol for asynchronous WSNs. Each node maintains multiple relay candidates that make geographical progresses of more than a threshold $\gamma$ , and opportunistically forwards data packet to the first candidate that wakes up. We can obtain the optimal end-to-end delay performance, by just tuning $\gamma$ . Analytical and simulation results show that the derived optimal $\gamma$ can make a good tradeoff between the single-hop delay and the hop count of forwarding path, and minimize the end-to-end delay of forwarding path.

In recent years, the bio-inspired solution has been employed to address routing optimization issue intelligently without manual intervention. In this paper, we propose a novel Ant Colony Optimization (ACO)-inspired Information-Centric Networking (ICN) Routing mechanism (ACOIR) by mapping ACO into ICN. At first, we devise a content management strategy based on the storage of name prefix to help conveniently and effectively manage and provide contents. Secondly, we propose a continuous model for content concentration by considering dynamic environment to conduct interest forwarding. Thirdly, we give a computation scheme about forwarding probability with physical distance and content concentration considered to determine the forwardable outgoing interface. Finally, we propose a comprehensive routing mechanism based on probabilistic forwarding to retrieve the most suitable content copy. We evaluate the proposed ACOIR, and the experimental results demonstrate that ACOIR can obtain the optimal solution and has better performance than other methods.

In mobile Ad Hoc networks (MANETs), flooding-based route discovery is usually preferred in order to set up the route with reliability between transmission pair. However, this approach may cause a serious contention in transmission between adjacent nodes and a considerable amount of control packets. In addition, most of Ad Hoc routing protocols establish the route with minimum hop count. Consequently, the performance of Ad Hoc routing protocol is considerably affected by link (or route) duration since the network comprises the nodes with unrestricted mobility and constrained range in transmission. This paper proposes novel routing protocol that aims to (1) minimize routing overhead in route discovery procedure, and (2) guarantee a reliable and fast packet delivery between source and destination, especially in providing real-time applications over MANETs. To achieve this objective, we introduce relay region (RR) within the transmission range of nodes in order to select optimal next relaying nodes for supporting specific application requirements in route discovery procedure. The RR is defined by the limited distance progress in transmission to next relaying node in order to maintain the established route for an arbitrary length of time (i.e., route duration) while meeting packet delivery reliability and delay constraints. In performance evaluation, the simulation results showed that the proposed scheme can significantly improve the performance in comparison with the previous routing algorithms in terms of packet delivery ratio and packet delivery latency, reducing transmission redundancy in route discovery procedure.

In this paper, we present a cooperative multihop transmission scheme for two-way amplify-and-forward (AF) relay networks. Based on a symbol error probability (SEP) analysis and using geographic information, we derive the maximum one-hop distance for a networking node under a given SEP and develop a next-hopping-node selection scheme. With these results, we then propose a routing protocol based on a greedy algorithm to realize the transmission scheme, where a routing path consisting of a number of independent two-way AF relaying procedures is built to connect the two sources. As compared to a previous related work, the proposed approach removes the utilization limitation and improves the routing efficiency. Computer simulation results also show that it provides a higher probability of successfully building a routing path with close effective throughput for most cases of interest.

Aiming at the problem of failure recovery in current networks, a fast failure recovery method based on equivalent cooperative routing is proposed. Firstly, the transmission path between the source and destination nodes is divided into several non-overlapping path segments. Next, backup paths are deployed for each link in the path segment through segmented routing technology, which ensures fast routing recovery after failure. Additionally, in order to avoid damaging the QoS of the data stream through the failure recovery process, the transmission is guaranteed by the intersegment QoS complement. The experimental results show that the proposed method has a low failure recovery delay under a relatively small flow table cost.

Privacy-preserving routing protocols in wireless networks frequently utilize additional artificial traffic to hide the identities of communicating source-destination pairs. Usually, the addition of artificial traffic is done heuristically with no guarantees that the transmission cost, latency, and so on, are optimized in every network topology. In this paper, we explicitly examine the privacy-utility tradeoff problem for wireless networks and develop a novel privacy-preserving routing algorithm called optimal privacy enhancing routing algorithm (OPERA). OPERA uses a statistical decision-making framework to optimize the privacy of the routing protocol given a utility (or cost) constraint. We consider global adversaries with both lossless and lossy observations that use the Bayesian maximum-a-posteriori (MAP) estimation strategy. We formulate the privacy-utility tradeoff problem as a linear program, which can be efficiently solved. Our simulation results demonstrate that OPERA reduces the adversary’s detection probability by up to 50% compared to the random Uniform and Greedy heuristics, and up to five times compared to a baseline scheme. In addition, OPERA also outperforms the conventional information-theoretic mutual information approach.

In this article, we are going to discuss the comparison of three different categories of routing principles, namely, flat routing, hierarchical routing and location-based routing in Wireless Sensor Networks. Under the flat routing strategies, we are going to discuss 1-D flooding and 2-D flooding. Under the hierarchical category, we will explore spanning tree and under the location-based routing category, we will use angle-based dynamic path construction. For all these four algorithms, on the basis of a precise energy modelling and MAC layer modelling, comparison is made out on the basis of energy consumption and delay incurred for the transmission of data from the sensing nodes via the forwarding nodes and ultimately converging at the sink node. Also, retransmission probability, an important criterion, is taken into consideration and its effect on energy consumption and end-to-end delay is observed.

Efficient and reliable routing plays a key role in wireless sensor networks in which routing design with regard to network availability and node lifetime needs to be deliberately considered. When multi-hop relay transmission is frequently applied to reduce a source node's energy consumption and improve network capacity, a key issue affecting the nodes' participation in the transmission is the problem of suitably determining the next hop in order to prolong each node's lifetime and to maintain the energy-balancing of the whole network. In this study, we propose an energy-aware routing scheme by taking the Cauchy operator, node's residual energy and routing distance into account. Based on Cauchy inequation, we achieve a relationship between the routing distance and the energy usage in the routing. By fixing a relay selection parameter and then identifying the next hop appropriately, we obtain a balancing energy-aware routing algorithm. Numerical results are provided to verify the lifetime and equilibrium of the energy distribution by comparing with them with those of a traditional approach.

In this paper, we propose a new routing protocol called the Least Common Multiple based Routing (LCMR) for load-balanced multipath routing in Mobile Ad hoc NETworks (MANETs). First, we find multiple paths between a source to a destination, when those exist, along with the estimates of the time to route a packet along each of these paths. The data packets originating from the source to the destination are then distributed along these multiple paths in such a way that the number of data packets sent along any such path is inversely proportional to the routing time through this path. This distribution strategy keeps the load balanced along all the paths so that the overall routing time for sending the data packets is minimized. Routes between a given source-destination pair are discovered in a way similar to that in the Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol with the difference that instead of the number of hops, the routing time for reaching the destination along every route is measured, and multiple routes, if those exist, will also be determined by the route discovery process. Our proposed technique for distribution of packets along different routes is very elegant with a better performance than the existing load-balanced routing protocols like Fibonacci Multipath Load Balancing (FMLB) and Multiple AODV (MAODV), as established from a theoretical analysis as well as through simulation results.

In this paper we propose a game theoretic framework for stochastic multipath routing in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). In a MANET, intelligent and adaptive attackers may try to hijack, jam or intercept data packets traveling from source to destination. In our proposed game, at each stage the source node keeps track of the available multiple paths, the residual bandwidth of the paths and the strategy of the attackers from the information gathered during the previous stage. Based on these observations, the source node selects a path for data communication and switching strategy among the multiple established paths between the source node and the destination node. Accordingly, it selects an optimal routing strategy to send data packets to the destination at each stage of the game. Using minimax-Q learning, the selected routing strategy maximizes the expected sum of per stage discounted payoff, which is the utilization of residual bandwidth between a source–destination pair along with the probability that the path is safe. Performance analysis and numerical results show that our proposed scheme achieves significant performance gains in terms of residual bandwidth utilization, average end-to-end delay, packet delivery ratio, routing overhead and security.

One known design for routing algorithms in mobile ad hoc networks is to use flooding. But, these algorithms are usually suffer from high overhead. Another common design is to use the nodes geographic locations to take routing choices. Current geographical routing algorithms usually address the routing environment in 2D space. However, in real life, nodes could be located in 3D space. To benefit from the advantages of both techniques we propose several 3D new routing algorithms that maximize the packets delivery rate and minimize the overhead. Our first set of algorithms (SPF: smart partial flooding) uses the nodes location to do the flooding in the direction of the destination over a sub-graph of the original dense graph. The second set (Progress–SPF) uses geographical routing to progress as much as possible to the destination, if its not possible, SPF is used over a sub-graph extracted locally. The 3rd set (Progress–SPF–Progress) used geographical routing to progress to the destination, if the progress is not possible, SPF is used over a sub-graph for one step only and then the algorithm goes back to the geographical routing. We evaluate our algorithms and compare them with current routing algorithms. The simulation results show a significant improvement in delivery rate up to $$100\%$$ compared to $$70\%$$ and a huge reduction in overall traffic around $$60\%$$ .

The process of routing in Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANET) is a challenging task in city environments. Finding the shortest end-to-end connected path satisfying delay restriction and minimal overhead is confronted with many constraints and difficulties. Such difficulties are due to the high mobility of vehicles, the frequent path failures, and the various obstructions, which may affect the reliability of the data transmission and routing. Commercial Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or what are commonly referred to as drones can come in handy in dealing with these constraints. In this paper, we study how UAVs operating in ad hoc mode can cooperate with VANET on the ground so as to assist in the routing process and improve the reliability of the data delivery by bridging the communication gap whenever it is possible. In a previous work, we have proposed UVAR a UAV-Assisted VANETs routing protocol, which improves data routing and connectivity of the vehicles on the ground through the use of UAVs. However, UVAR does not fully exploit UAVs in the sky for data forwarding because it uses UAVs only when the network is poorly dense. In this paper, we propose an extension of this protocol by supporting two different ways of routing data: (i) delivering data packets exclusively on the ground using UVAR-G; and (ii) transmitting data packets in the sky using a reactive routing based on UVAR-S. Simulation results demonstrate that the hybrid communication between vehicles and UAVs is ideally suited for VANETs compared to traditional vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communications.

Geographical correlated failures are threats that cause major interruptions and damage to networking systems. To mitigate this rarely addressed challenge, this letter presents a novel geographical location-aware route selection algorithm to support uninterrupted networking. The multi-path routing method developed calculates multiple paths that satisfy different constraints, while ensuring the prescribed geographical distance metric between selected paths. It is used with existing overlay routing mechanisms to maintain routes. In the evaluation against enhanced $k$ -shortest path algorithms, the new algorithm is shown to provide multi-paths with larger spatial separation and better potential to uninterrupted networking in geographical correlated failures.

Flocking is a fascinating collective behaviour exhibited by many different insects or animals including ants, bees, birds and fish. As understood by biologists, the overall flocking behaviour emerges from relatively simple local control rules by which each smart-pallet adjusts its own trajectory based on those of its closest neighbours. We use, in this article, “flocking principle” to simulate a routing algorithm based on a multi agent system in a Smart-Cross-Dock. We use the level of visibility to avoid the obstacles and the congestions in the cross-dock platform. We specify a number of methodologies for placing the influencing smart-pallet into the flock, and comparing them via detailed experimental results.

In duty-cycled wireless sensor networks running asynchronous MAC protocols, the time when a sender waits for its receiver to wake up and receive the packet is the major source of energy consumption. Opportunistic routing can reduce the sender wait time by allowing multiple candidate receivers, but by doing that it suffers from redundant packet forwarding due to multiple receivers waking up at the same time. Thus, the number of forwarders should be controlled in a way that overall forwarding cost is minimized considering both sender wait time and cost of redundant packet forwarding. Also, in order to prolong network lifetime, candidate forwarders should be selected so that load is balanced among nodes. We propose ORR, an opportunistic routing protocol that addresses the two issues. First, the optimal number of forwarders is calculated based on forwarding cost estimation, which is derived from duty cycle and network topology. Second, the metric used for selecting forwarders considers residual energy so that more traffic is guided through nodes with larger remaining energy. The resulting routing protocol is proven to avoid loops and shown to achieve longer network lifetime compared to other protocols regardless of duty cycle and network topology.

The mobile ad-hoc network decentralized and self -configuring network in which mobile nodes can join or leave the network .When they want due to self-configuring and decentralized nature of manner of security ,routing quality of service are the three issue which raise in the network. In this paper the techniques of routing are discussed it is been analyzed that routing techniques are broadly classified into reactive proactive and hybrid type protocols. The reactive routing is the most efficient type of routing in terms of various parameters the protocols of reactive is been explored and discussed in this paper.

Routing is the process of selecting best paths in a network &forwarding the information along that path. This paper concentrate on unipath& multipath routing in wired & wireless networks.There are different strategies proposed for efficient routing which claimed to provide improved performance.This paper provides an overview of different routing protocols proposed in literature.

In this paper a new power efficient routing algorithm for MANETs with self-organizing and self-routing features is described and its performance analyzed in different simulation scenarios. The algorithm has the logic of a non-cooperative routing algorithm based on the evaluation of a weight parameter, the latter being a function of properties of the MANET nodes related to the nominal available power and the transmission range. A self-estimation of this weight parameter for each node is introduced in the routing process based on the status and functional history of the node. The routing is based on network layering, formation of service areas in each layer and choice of nodes from these areas to have the functionality of default gateways. The proposed algorithm, named service zone gateway prediction (SZGP), is a hybrid type of routing mechanism, incorporating pre-computed multipath hop-by-hop distributed routing, with a periodically updated hierarchical multilayered structure. The results from the simulation experiments show that the performance of the proposed SZGP algorithm in relation to the basic performance parameters such as packet delivery ratio, delay and throughput are similar to those of the well-known AODV algorithm, but in relation to power efficiency the proposed algorithm outperforms AODV significantly. This is due to the fact that such an approach reduces the overall number of broadcasts in the network and ensures a reliable and energy efficient connection by balancing the load among the nodes.

This research paper proposes a bio-inspired self-aware fault-tolerant routing protocol for network-on-chip architecture using particle swarm optimization (PSO), which considers synchronous, asynchronous, and self-organizing communication mechanisms to intelligently load-balance the traffic on the entire network in the presence of faulty components. By way of experimentation and simulation, this study demonstrates that the proposed scheme can converge to a global optimum, minimal routing path in real time, in the presence of network congestion and faulty routers and links. The basic PSO algorithm was improved to implement the proposed routing scheme, named bio-inspired self-aware fault-tolerant routing protocol (BISFTRP). This scheme uses the synchronous, asynchronous, and self-organizing features of PSO to create a global routing table and intelligent adaptation, which gives rise to scalable, real-time, and dynamic routing decisions with high throughput, low latency, and minimum power consumption. A cycle-accurate simulation system to demonstrate the flexibility and efficiency of the proposed scheme is used. Comparison results with state-of-the-art fault-tolerant routing algorithms show that the BISFTRP routing protocol achieves high routing performance without routing oscillations and throughput degradation. Furthermore, the hardware implementation results show that the BISFTRP router achieves an efficient area and power utilization, compared with state-of-the-art routers.

Wireless ad hoc networks are going to be an emerged multi-hop communication exploit among mobiles to deliver data packets. The special characteristics of Wireless network make the communication link between mobiles to be unreliable. To handle high mobility and environmental obstacles, most of physical routing protocols do not consider stable links during packet transmission which lead to higher delay and packet dropping in network. In this paper, we propose path observation based physical routing protocol named POPR for WANET. The proposed routing protocol incorporates relative distance, direction and mid-range forwarder node with traffic density to forward the data toward destination in order to improve physical forwarding between and at the intersection. Simulation results show that the proposed routing protocol performs better as compared to existing solutions.

The issue of routing in multi-hop wireless networks, to achieve high end-to-end throughput, it is difficult to find the optimal path from the source node to the destination node. Although a large number of routing protocols have been implemented to find the path with minimum transmission time for sending a single packet, such transmission time reduces protocols cannot be guaranteed to achieve high end-to-end throughput. Spatial reusability aware routing in multi hop wireless network is featured by considering spatial reusability of the wireless communication media. Spatial reusability-aware single-path routes and any path routing protocols, and compare them with existing single-path routing and any path routing protocols, respectively. Our evaluation results demonstrate that our protocols significantly improve the end-to-end throughput compared with existing protocols. Resource allocation algorithm is inquired to maximize the energy efficiency (EE) in multiuser decode-and-forward (DF) relay interference networks.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) usually consist of many tiny sensor nodes and a Sink; despite the great variety of their applications, they are faced with many problems like limited resources, low Quality of Service such as low reliability and fault tolerance, low throughput, low scalability and insecure operational environments. It significantly degrades their overall performance. One significant solution against mentioning problems is multipath routing; but, existing multipath routing protocols have weaknesses like high overhead and resources’ severe consumed, low accuracy, security vulnerabilities, low scalability and permanent usage of optimal paths. As a result, this paper proposes a hierarchical multipath routing protocol for homogeneous and clustered WSNs, called HMR-WSN. Finally, its performance is compared with the performance of HMR-LEACH routing protocol; results of algorithmic-complexity and statistical-simulation analyses show HMR-WSN is improved in terms of energy consumption, the average rate of packet delivery, throughput and accuracy. But, its performance is proportionally degraded in terms of average of route setup time, routing overhead and computational simplicity.

Modern Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) requires special requirements in routing protocols because of nature of distribution and dynamic topology. The most important need for WSNs is energy efficient routing protocol that consumes optimal energy. It provides extension to the network’s life period. Nowadays a number of energy efficient routing protocols are proposed by various researchers in WSNs. However, security and energy efficiency in data collection and transmission in WSNs should be simultaneously considered for security challenges and to overcome limitation of WSNs. In this paper, we propose a new and effective routing protocol named, “Intelligent Energy Aware Secured Algorithm for Routing (IEASAR)” which is secure by using a Trust based approach and is Energy efficient at the same time. For this purpose, a new energy efficient protocol using Fuzzy C-means has been proposed in this paper. Moreover, a modified minimum spanning tree approach is applied here to identify the minimum distance path between the sender node and the destination node and hence an optimal and secured routing path is selected. Extensive simulations have been conducted in this work to verify the validity of our claims.

Cognitive Radio Wireless Mesh Networks (CRWMNs) are reliable and promising technology to access opportunistically spectrum holes from the licensed bands with intelligible Software Defined Radio. Multi-radio and multichannel CRWMNs are dynamic networks, which creates routing protocol design as a complex. It has a capability of assessing the spectrum availability during routing, which enhance the efficiency of the network. The proposed algorithm is a novel multipath algorithm. The path selected in this algorithm based the minimal interference information, which is useful to make this routing approach as more reliable. Channel selection has the capability to identify more suitable links for data transmission in the network. The proposed algorithm has simulated in network simulator (ns2). The simulation results demonstrate the efficiency of proposed channel selection and path aware routing algorithm.

In this letter, we propose an OpenFlow (OF)-based SCAlable Routing strategy (OSCAR) for modular data center networks (DCN) using a hybrid addressing mechanism. Each module in the DCN constitutes a segment in the network. Inter-segment routing is performed using virtual MAC (VMAC) ids assigned to the segments and intra-segment routing is done using IP addresses. OF provides central control over the network but it suffers from limited scalability in DCNs due to high control traffic. In OSCAR, the control traffic is minimized to achieve high scalability and flexibility in DCN routing.

With the high demand of mobile Internet services, vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) have become a promising technology to enable vehicular Internet access. However, the development of a reliable routing protocol to route data packets between vehicles and infrastructure gateways is still a challenging task due to the high mobility and frequent changes of the network topology. The conventional position-based routing (PBR) in VANETs can neither guarantee the existence of a routing path between the source and the destination prior to the transmission nor provide connection duration information, which makes it unsuitable to route Internet packets. In this paper, we propose a novel infrastructure-based connectivity aware routing protocol called $i$ CAR-II that enables multihop vehicular applications, as well as mobile data offloading and Internet-based services. $i$ CAR-II consists of a number of algorithms triggered and run by vehicles to predict local network connectivity and update location servers with real-time network information, in order to construct a global network topology. By providing real-time connectivity awareness, $i$ CAR-II improves the routing performance in VANETs by dynamically selecting routing paths with guaranteed connectivity and reduced delivery delay. Detailed analysis and simulation-based evaluations of $i$ CAR-II demonstrate the validity of using VANETs for mobile data offloading and the significant improvement of VANETs performance in terms of packet delivery ratio and end to end delay.

Energy consumption and security are two important aspects of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs). In MANET, application security can be provided using trust management, key management, firewalls and intrusion detection. Moreover, it is often necessary to communicate secret information in military applications where urgent and reliable communication is more important. However, most of the existing routing algorithms do not focus on the energy and security aspects while routing. Since energy and security are important criteria for reliable communication in MANET, it is essential to consider the energy and security aspects in routing algorithms. The prevention of security attacks on routing protocols and cluster based routing automatically reduces the energy consumption. Hence, we propose a new secured routing protocol called Cluster based Energy Efficient Secure Routing Algorithm (CEESRA) in this paper which is energy efficient and uses cluster based routing in which the trust scores on nodes are used to detect the intruders effectively. This routing algorithm reduces the Denial of Service attacks more efficiently by using intelligent agents for effective decision making in routing. From the experiments conducted with this trust based secured routing algorithm, it has been observed that this proposed routing algorithm not only enhances the security but also reduces the energy consumption and routing delay.

This paper proposes a real-time and energy aware routing protocol for industrial wireless sensor networks, called RTEA. Two-hop neighborhood information routing is adopted from THVR routing protocol, however our routing protocol has low control packet overhead and differentiates packets based on their deadlines. The packet deadline is updated in each hop without using globally synchronized clocks. In addition to velocity, the distance to the sink is considered for reducing the number of relaying hops. Also, the delay between two one-hop neighbors is estimated by a new mechanism which considers the time that packets spend in each node beside the link delay. Simulation results show that RTEA can improve the performance in terms of delivery ratio and energy consumption.

This paper presents a fault-tolerant routing methodology for both injured hypercube and cube-connected cycles interconnection topologies. The proposed routing methodology efficiently tolerates any pattern of faulty regions with any number of faulty nodes in the network which is based on the best-first search and backtracking strategy. Deadlock freedom of the proposed routing methodology is obtained by only one virtual channel per physical channel. In order to evaluate the proposed routing methodology, a 7-dimensional hypercube network is simulated in various conditions, i.e., different traffic rates, different number of faulty nodes and different message lengths. Simulation results confirm that the proposed routing methodology in comparison with the previous methods provides acceptable performance while it significantly increases the reliability of the network. It also guarantees delivery of messages between any pair of source and destination while the network is connected.

Modern multimedia sensor networks impose strict constraints on both the delay and energy consumption when time-critical data must be reported to the sink within a limited bandwidth without any loss. Failure to transmit an event to the sink occurs for many reasons, including inherence limitations of sensors, power consumption, and reliability. We propose a mathematical model for a novel quality-of-service (QoS) routing-determination method. The proposed scheme enables determining the optimal path to provide appropriate shared radio satisfying the QoS for a wide range of real-time intensive media. The mathematical model is based on the Lagrangian relaxation method, to control adaptive switching of hop-by-hop QoS routing protocols. The embedded criteria for each objective function are used to decide which path from source to sink will be selected. Simulation results show that, compared with existing routing protocols, the approach proposed in this paper significantly improves the packet received ratio, energy consumption, and average end-to-end delay of the sensor node.

Cognitive radio networks (CRNs) have been emerging as a promising technique to improve the spectrum efficiency of wireless and mobile networks, which form spectrum clouds to provide services for unlicensed users. As spectrum clouds, the performance of multi-hop CRNs heavily depends on the routing protocol. In this paper, taking the newly proposed Cognitive Capacity Harvesting network as an example, we study the routing problem in multi-hop CRNs and propose a spectrum-aware anypath routing (SAAR) scheme with consideration of both the salient spectrum uncertainty feature of CRNs and the unreliable transmission characteristics of wireless medium. A new cognitive anypath routing metric is designed based on channel and link statistics to accurately estimate and evaluate the quality of an anypath under uncertain spectrum availability. A polynomial-time routing algorithm is also developed to find the best channel and the associated optimal forwarding set and compute the least cost anypath. Extensive simulations show that the proposed protocol SAAR significantly increases packet delivery ratio and reduces end-to-end delay with low communication and computation overhead, which makes it suitable and scalable to be used in multi-hop CRNs.